Serveur d'exploration sur les dispositifs haptiques

Attention, ce site est en cours de développement !
Attention, site généré par des moyens informatiques à partir de corpus bruts.
Les informations ne sont donc pas validées.

Teaching the Blind to Find Their Way by Playing Video Games

Identifieur interne : 002264 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 002263; suivant : 002265

Teaching the Blind to Find Their Way by Playing Video Games

Auteurs : Lotfi B. Merabet [États-Unis] ; Erin C. Connors [États-Unis] ; Mark A. Halko [États-Unis] ; Jaime Sánchez [Chili]

Source :

RBID : PMC:3446956

Abstract

Computer based video games are receiving great interest as a means to learn and acquire new skills. As a novel approach to teaching navigation skills in the blind, we have developed Audio-based Environment Simulator (AbES); a virtual reality environment set within the context of a video game metaphor. Despite the fact that participants were naïve to the overall purpose of the software, we found that early blind users were able to acquire relevant information regarding the spatial layout of a previously unfamiliar building using audio based cues alone. This was confirmed by a series of behavioral performance tests designed to assess the transfer of acquired spatial information to a large-scale, real-world indoor navigation task. Furthermore, learning the spatial layout through a goal directed gaming strategy allowed for the mental manipulation of spatial information as evidenced by enhanced navigation performance when compared to an explicit route learning strategy. We conclude that the immersive and highly interactive nature of the software greatly engages the blind user to actively explore the virtual environment. This in turn generates an accurate sense of a large-scale three-dimensional space and facilitates the learning and transfer of navigation skills to the physical world.


Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044958
PubMed: 23028703
PubMed Central: 3446956

Links toward previous steps (curation, corpus...)


Links to Exploration step

PMC:3446956

Le document en format XML

<record>
<TEI>
<teiHeader>
<fileDesc>
<titleStmt>
<title xml:lang="en">Teaching the Blind to Find Their Way by Playing Video Games</title>
<author>
<name sortKey="Merabet, Lotfi B" sort="Merabet, Lotfi B" uniqKey="Merabet L" first="Lotfi B." last="Merabet">Lotfi B. Merabet</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="2">
<nlm:aff id="aff1">
<addr-line>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts</wicri:regionArea>
<placeName>
<region type="state">Massachusetts</region>
</placeName>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Connors, Erin C" sort="Connors, Erin C" uniqKey="Connors E" first="Erin C." last="Connors">Erin C. Connors</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="2">
<nlm:aff id="aff1">
<addr-line>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts</wicri:regionArea>
<placeName>
<region type="state">Massachusetts</region>
</placeName>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Halko, Mark A" sort="Halko, Mark A" uniqKey="Halko M" first="Mark A." last="Halko">Mark A. Halko</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="2">
<nlm:aff id="aff2">
<addr-line>Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Department of Neurology Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Department of Neurology Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts</wicri:regionArea>
<placeName>
<region type="state">Massachusetts</region>
</placeName>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Sanchez, Jaime" sort="Sanchez, Jaime" uniqKey="Sanchez J" first="Jaime" last="Sánchez">Jaime Sánchez</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="1">
<nlm:aff id="aff3">
<addr-line>Department of Computer Science and Center for Advanced Research in Education (CARE), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Chili</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Computer Science and Center for Advanced Research in Education (CARE), University of Chile, Santiago</wicri:regionArea>
<wicri:noRegion>Santiago</wicri:noRegion>
</affiliation>
</author>
</titleStmt>
<publicationStmt>
<idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno>
<idno type="pmid">23028703</idno>
<idno type="pmc">3446956</idno>
<idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3446956</idno>
<idno type="RBID">PMC:3446956</idno>
<idno type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0044958</idno>
<date when="2012">2012</date>
<idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">002224</idno>
<idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">002224</idno>
<idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">001547</idno>
<idno type="wicri:Area/Ncbi/Merge">002264</idno>
</publicationStmt>
<sourceDesc>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Teaching the Blind to Find Their Way by Playing Video Games</title>
<author>
<name sortKey="Merabet, Lotfi B" sort="Merabet, Lotfi B" uniqKey="Merabet L" first="Lotfi B." last="Merabet">Lotfi B. Merabet</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="2">
<nlm:aff id="aff1">
<addr-line>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts</wicri:regionArea>
<placeName>
<region type="state">Massachusetts</region>
</placeName>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Connors, Erin C" sort="Connors, Erin C" uniqKey="Connors E" first="Erin C." last="Connors">Erin C. Connors</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="2">
<nlm:aff id="aff1">
<addr-line>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts</wicri:regionArea>
<placeName>
<region type="state">Massachusetts</region>
</placeName>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Halko, Mark A" sort="Halko, Mark A" uniqKey="Halko M" first="Mark A." last="Halko">Mark A. Halko</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="2">
<nlm:aff id="aff2">
<addr-line>Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Department of Neurology Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Department of Neurology Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts</wicri:regionArea>
<placeName>
<region type="state">Massachusetts</region>
</placeName>
</affiliation>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Sanchez, Jaime" sort="Sanchez, Jaime" uniqKey="Sanchez J" first="Jaime" last="Sánchez">Jaime Sánchez</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="1">
<nlm:aff id="aff3">
<addr-line>Department of Computer Science and Center for Advanced Research in Education (CARE), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Chili</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Department of Computer Science and Center for Advanced Research in Education (CARE), University of Chile, Santiago</wicri:regionArea>
<wicri:noRegion>Santiago</wicri:noRegion>
</affiliation>
</author>
</analytic>
<series>
<title level="j">PLoS ONE</title>
<idno type="eISSN">1932-6203</idno>
<imprint>
<date when="2012">2012</date>
</imprint>
</series>
</biblStruct>
</sourceDesc>
</fileDesc>
<profileDesc>
<textClass></textClass>
</profileDesc>
</teiHeader>
<front>
<div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">
<p>Computer based video games are receiving great interest as a means to learn and acquire new skills. As a novel approach to teaching navigation skills in the blind, we have developed Audio-based Environment Simulator (AbES); a virtual reality environment set within the context of a video game metaphor. Despite the fact that participants were naïve to the overall purpose of the software, we found that early blind users were able to acquire relevant information regarding the spatial layout of a previously unfamiliar building using audio based cues alone. This was confirmed by a series of behavioral performance tests designed to assess the transfer of acquired spatial information to a large-scale, real-world indoor navigation task. Furthermore, learning the spatial layout through a goal directed gaming strategy allowed for the mental manipulation of spatial information as evidenced by enhanced navigation performance when compared to an explicit route learning strategy. We conclude that the immersive and highly interactive nature of the software greatly engages the blind user to actively explore the virtual environment. This in turn generates an accurate sense of a large-scale three-dimensional space and facilitates the learning and transfer of navigation skills to the physical world.</p>
</div>
</front>
<back>
<div1 type="bibliography">
<listBibl>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Bavelier, D" uniqKey="Bavelier D">D Bavelier</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Green, Cs" uniqKey="Green C">CS Green</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Han, Dh" uniqKey="Han D">DH Han</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Renshaw, Pf" uniqKey="Renshaw P">PF Renshaw</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Merzenich, Mm" uniqKey="Merzenich M">MM Merzenich</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Dede, C" uniqKey="Dede C">C Dede</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Shaffer, Dw" uniqKey="Shaffer D">DW Shaffer</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Squire, Kr" uniqKey="Squire K">KR Squire</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Halverson, R" uniqKey="Halverson R">R Halverson</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Gee, Jp" uniqKey="Gee J">JP Gee</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Bavelier, D" uniqKey="Bavelier D">D Bavelier</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Green, Cs" uniqKey="Green C">CS Green</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Dye, Mw" uniqKey="Dye M">MW Dye</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct></biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Loomis, Jm" uniqKey="Loomis J">JM Loomis</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Klatzky, Rl" uniqKey="Klatzky R">RL Klatzky</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Golledge, Rg" uniqKey="Golledge R">RG Golledge</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Strelow, Er" uniqKey="Strelow E">ER Strelow</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Ashmead, Dh" uniqKey="Ashmead D">DH Ashmead</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Hill, Ew" uniqKey="Hill E">EW Hill</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Talor, Cr" uniqKey="Talor C">CR Talor</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct></biblStruct>
<biblStruct></biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Thinus Blanc, C" uniqKey="Thinus Blanc C">C Thinus-Blanc</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Gaunet, F" uniqKey="Gaunet F">F Gaunet</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Lederman, Sj" uniqKey="Lederman S">SJ Lederman</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Klatzky, Rl" uniqKey="Klatzky R">RL Klatzky</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Barber, Po" uniqKey="Barber P">PO Barber</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Gagnon, L" uniqKey="Gagnon L">L Gagnon</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Schneider, Fc" uniqKey="Schneider F">FC Schneider</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Siebner, Hr" uniqKey="Siebner H">HR Siebner</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Paulson, Ob" uniqKey="Paulson O">OB Paulson</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Kupers, R" uniqKey="Kupers R">R Kupers</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Kupers, R" uniqKey="Kupers R">R Kupers</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Chebat, Dr" uniqKey="Chebat D">DR Chebat</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Madsen, Kh" uniqKey="Madsen K">KH Madsen</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Paulson, Ob" uniqKey="Paulson O">OB Paulson</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Ptito, M" uniqKey="Ptito M">M Ptito</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Wolbers, T" uniqKey="Wolbers T">T Wolbers</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Klatzky, Rl" uniqKey="Klatzky R">RL Klatzky</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Loomis, Jm" uniqKey="Loomis J">JM Loomis</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Wutte, Mg" uniqKey="Wutte M">MG Wutte</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Giudice, Na" uniqKey="Giudice N">NA Giudice</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Siegel, Aw" uniqKey="Siegel A">AW Siegel</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="White, Sh" uniqKey="White S">SH White</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Cattaneo, Z" uniqKey="Cattaneo Z">Z Cattaneo</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Vecchi, T" uniqKey="Vecchi T">T Vecchi</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Cornoldi, C" uniqKey="Cornoldi C">C Cornoldi</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Mammarella, I" uniqKey="Mammarella I">I Mammarella</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Bonino, D" uniqKey="Bonino D">D Bonino</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Lahav, O" uniqKey="Lahav O">O Lahav</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct></biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Chebat, Dr" uniqKey="Chebat D">DR Chebat</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Schneider, Fc" uniqKey="Schneider F">FC Schneider</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Kupers, R" uniqKey="Kupers R">R Kupers</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Ptito, M" uniqKey="Ptito M">M Ptito</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Giudice, Na" uniqKey="Giudice N">NA Giudice</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Bakdash, Jz" uniqKey="Bakdash J">JZ Bakdash</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Legge, Ge" uniqKey="Legge G">GE Legge</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Johnson, La" uniqKey="Johnson L">LA Johnson</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Higgins, Cm" uniqKey="Higgins C">CM Higgins</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Kalia, Aa" uniqKey="Kalia A">AA Kalia</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Legge, Ge" uniqKey="Legge G">GE Legge</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Roy, R" uniqKey="Roy R">R Roy</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Ogale, A" uniqKey="Ogale A">A Ogale</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Merabet, L" uniqKey="Merabet L">L Merabet</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Sanchez, J" uniqKey="Sanchez J">J Sánchez</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
<biblStruct>
<analytic>
<author>
<name sortKey="Fortin, M" uniqKey="Fortin M">M Fortin</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Voss, P" uniqKey="Voss P">P Voss</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Lord, C" uniqKey="Lord C">C Lord</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Lassonde, M" uniqKey="Lassonde M">M Lassonde</name>
</author>
<author>
<name sortKey="Pruessner, J" uniqKey="Pruessner J">J Pruessner</name>
</author>
</analytic>
</biblStruct>
</listBibl>
</div1>
</back>
</TEI>
<pmc article-type="research-article">
<pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS One</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS ONE</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plosone</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>PLoS ONE</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">1932-6203</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>San Francisco, USA</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmid">23028703</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3446956</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PONE-D-12-18100</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0044958</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Research Article</subject>
</subj-group>
<subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2">
<subject>Biology</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Computational Biology</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Computational Neuroscience</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
<subj-group>
<subject>Neuroscience</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Sensory Systems</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Visual System</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
<subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2">
<subject>Computer Science</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Computer Applications</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Computer-Assisted Instruction</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
<subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2">
<subject>Medicine</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Neurology</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Cognitive Neurology</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
<subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2">
<subject>Social and Behavioral Sciences</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Science Education</subject>
<subj-group>
<subject>Teaching Methods</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Teaching the Blind to Find Their Way by Playing Video Games</article-title>
<alt-title alt-title-type="running-head">Video Games for Blind Navigation</alt-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Merabet</surname>
<given-names>Lotfi B.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1">
<sup>*</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Connors</surname>
<given-names>Erin C.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Halko</surname>
<given-names>Mark A.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>Sánchez</surname>
<given-names>Jaime</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Department of Neurology Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>Department of Computer Science and Center for Advanced Research in Education (CARE), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile</addr-line>
</aff>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="editor">
<name>
<surname>Theoret</surname>
<given-names>Hugo</given-names>
</name>
<role>Editor</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="edit1">
<addr-line>University of Montreal, Canada</addr-line>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="cor1">* E-mail:
<email>lotfi_merabet@meei.harvard.edu</email>
</corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p>
<bold>Competing Interests: </bold>
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.</p>
</fn>
<fn fn-type="con">
<p>Analyzed the data: MH LM. Designed the research: LM JS. Collected data: EC LM. Contributed to writing the paper: LM EC MH JS.</p>
</fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="collection">
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>19</day>
<month>9</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>7</volume>
<issue>9</issue>
<elocation-id>e44958</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>21</day>
<month>6</month>
<year>2012</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>10</day>
<month>8</month>
<year>2012</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-year>2012</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder>Merabet et al</copyright-holder>
<license>
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<p>Computer based video games are receiving great interest as a means to learn and acquire new skills. As a novel approach to teaching navigation skills in the blind, we have developed Audio-based Environment Simulator (AbES); a virtual reality environment set within the context of a video game metaphor. Despite the fact that participants were naïve to the overall purpose of the software, we found that early blind users were able to acquire relevant information regarding the spatial layout of a previously unfamiliar building using audio based cues alone. This was confirmed by a series of behavioral performance tests designed to assess the transfer of acquired spatial information to a large-scale, real-world indoor navigation task. Furthermore, learning the spatial layout through a goal directed gaming strategy allowed for the mental manipulation of spatial information as evidenced by enhanced navigation performance when compared to an explicit route learning strategy. We conclude that the immersive and highly interactive nature of the software greatly engages the blind user to actively explore the virtual environment. This in turn generates an accurate sense of a large-scale three-dimensional space and facilitates the learning and transfer of navigation skills to the physical world.</p>
</abstract>
<funding-group>
<funding-statement>National Institutes of Health/National Eye Institute grant RO1 EY019924 to LBM. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts>
<page-count count="5"></page-count>
</counts>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="s1">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Considerable interest has arisen regarding the educative potential of computer based video games and the behavioral and neurological effects associated with game play
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Bavelier1">[1]</xref>
. In particular, it has been suggested that the open structure and free discovery of information inherent in game based virtual reality environments improves contextual learning and the transfer of situational knowledge and awareness
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Dede1">[2]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Shaffer1">[3]</xref>
. Successfully leveraging these advantages in education and rehabilitation arenas has immense appeal and could potentially facilitate the learning of demanding tasks and further promote the transfer of acquired skills beyond the limitations of the training context itself
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Bavelier2">[4]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Lange1">[5]</xref>
.</p>
<p>One interesting application of a video game based learning strategy would be to assist in the education and rehabilitation of individuals with profound visual impairment. For example, in the blind, navigating effectively is a very difficult task to master. Unlike sighted, blind individuals must rely on other sensory channels (such as hearing, touch, and proprioception) to gather relevant spatial information for orientating, route planning and path execution
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Loomis1">[6]</xref>
. The mental representation of surrounding space is referred to as a “spatial cognitive map”
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Strelow1">[7]</xref>
). Given the important role visual cues play in navigating, it has been assumed that blind individuals (and in particular, those who are congenitally blind) would be unable to create accurate mental spatial representations of their surroundings
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Ashmead1">[8]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-vonSenden1">[9]</xref>
(see
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Blasch1">[10]</xref>
for further discussion). Based upon immediate perceptual experiences in their close vicinity, this mental representation would be largely egocentric or “route” based. As such, this level of spatial organization would fail to capture the more global or holistic interrelations between objects in the surrounding environment. It would follow that blind individuals would be particularly challenged in situations when faced with large-scale unfamiliar environments or when alternate routes need to be taken
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-ThinusBlanc1">[11]</xref>
. Indeed, navigating effectively requires the ability to mentally manipulate spatial and contextual information, and for the blind, developing high-level spatial skills (related to allocentric-based or “survey” knowledge) is considered crucial for promoting greater travel independence
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Blasch1">[10]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Lederman1">[12]</xref>
.</p>
<p>We hypothesized that these observed navigation difficulties reflect more the inadequate access of crucial and contextually related spatial information needed to characterize a given surrounding environment rather than holding the presumptive view that the blind have inherently impaired mental spatial constructs. Put another way, we wondered if a novel learning approach employed for capturing and understanding crucial spatial relationships of a given particular environment could influence overall navigation performance and the transference of skills.</p>
<p>With these strategies in mind, we developed a virtual environment simulator training platform for the specific purpose of enhancing way finding skills in the blind. Audio-based Environment Simulator (AbES) is a novel, user-centered virtual environment that allows for simulated navigation and exploration of the layout of an existing physical building and set within an action video game metaphor (
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0044958-g001">Figure 1</xref>
. See
<xref ref-type="sec" rid="s4">methods</xref>
for software description). We hypothesized that interacting with AbES would not only allow a blind user to generate an accurate spatial cognitive map of a target building, but also allow for the transfer of acquired spatial information to a large-scale, real-world indoor navigation task. Finally, we hypothesized that acquiring spatial information through the context of playing an action video game (as compared to an explicit route learning strategy) would promote improved contextual learning and situational knowledge demonstrable as enhanced navigation performance.</p>
<fig id="pone-0044958-g001" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0044958.g001</object-id>
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Virtual rendering of a physical environment represented in the AbES software.</title>
<p>A) architectural floor plan of an existing two story building with 23 rooms, 2 stairwells and 3 exits. For simplicity, only the first floor is shown. B) In gamer mode, the player (yellow icon) navigates through the virtual environment using auditory cues to locate hidden jewels (blue squares) and avoid being caught by chasing monsters (red icons). C) In directed navigation mode, the user learns the spatial layout of the building and the relative location of the rooms using predetermined paths (shown in yellow) and with the assistance of a facilitator.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="pone.0044958.g001"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>In this study, early blind participants (not previously familiar with the spatial layout of the target building and naïve to the overall purpose of the investigation) were randomized to one of two groups. In the “gamer” group, participants interacted with AbES within the context of a goal directed action video game designed to promote full exploration of the virtual environment. The game’s premise is to navigate and explore the entire virtual building so as to collect jewels (hidden in various rooms) while avoiding roving monsters that can take the jewels away and hide them elsewhere in the building (
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0044958-g001">Figure 1</xref>
B). The gaming participants were encouraged to collect as many jewels as possible. By comparison, participants relegated to the second “directed navigator” group were explicitly taught the spatial layout of the building using AbES through a series of pre-determined paths with the assistance of a sighted facilitator. The training involved a complete step-by-step instruction of the building layout such that all the room locations, exits, and landmarks were encountered in a serial fashion (following a clockwise direction) similar to a “shoreline” strategy along the interior perimeter. The paths followed were virtual recreations of a typical lesson taught by a professional orientation and mobility (O&M) instructor for the blind (
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0044958-g001">Figure 1C</xref>
).</p>
<p>Following the training period, participants in both groups were taken to the target physical building to partake in a series of behavioral navigation tasks. In the first experiment, participants were instructed to navigate a series of predetermined paths. The paths were a series of start and stop points (i.e. rooms) whose pairing and sequence was unrelated to the explicit virtual training paths used to teach the building layout (i.e. in the directed navigation group). Primary outcome measures included whether the participant was able to successfully complete the navigation task and time taken to target. In a second experiment, a series of “drop off” tasks were carried out in which participants were placed at predetermined locations and instructed to exit the building using the shortest path possible (i.e. choosing one from three possible exits). Again, the possible paths used to exit the building from these start points were unrelated to the explicit virtual training routes and the paths tested in experiment 1. Performance in the latter task was scored for the path chosen (see
<xref ref-type="sec" rid="s4">methods</xref>
section for scoring strategy).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s2">
<title>Results</title>
<sec id="s2a">
<title>Experiment 1</title>
<p>Assessing performance in early blind participants on the physical navigation task revealed that both gamers and directed navigators showed similar and high success in navigating the test paths following training with AbES (gamers: 87.5% ±10.4 SD correct, directed navigators: 88.57% ±18.6 SD correct; t = 0.14, p = 0.89) (
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0044958-g002">figure 2</xref>
A). Furthermore, mean navigation times were also comparable in both groups (gamers: 75.28 sec ±36.0 SD, directed navigators: 71.34 sec ±73.4 SD; t = 0.13, p = 0.89 ) (
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0044958-g002">figure 2</xref>
B).</p>
<fig id="pone-0044958-g002" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0044958.g002</object-id>
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Comparing performance on navigation tasks between gamers and directed navigator learning strategy.</title>
<p>A) High success on correct paths taken (%) was observed in both groups for room-to-room navigation. B) Average time taken to navigate to target (sec) was also similar in both groups. C) Results of drop off task reveals an advantage for gamers. Paths chosen were scored such that the shortest route possible to exit the building from a given starting point received a maximum of 3 points, 2 for next closest exit, 1 for the longest, 0 for unsuccessful). Gamers showed an advantage over directed navigators in that they were more likely to choose the shortest path on the drop off task (indicated by higher average point score). Error bars indicate S.E.M., n.s.  =  not significant. * = p<0.05.</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="pone.0044958.g002"></graphic>
</fig>
<p>The similar performance between gamers and directed navigators suggests that both audio-based learning strategies (gamer and directed navigator) allowed for the generation of an accurate spatial representation. In turn, the spatial information acquired through virtual navigation could be transferred to a large-scale, physical navigation task.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s2b">
<title>Experiment 2</title>
<p>In the drop off experiment, participants were instructed to exit the building using the shortest path possible from a predetermined starting point. In this experiment, we assessed not only how well spatial information could be transferred, but also mentally manipulated. Given there were a variety of navigation path solutions, routes were scored such that the highest point value was awarded for the shortest possible route (maximum of 3 points) and point values decreased incrementally with path length. Assessing performance revealed that participants in the gamer group showed a distinct advantage over directed navigators in that they were more likely to select the closest exit (i.e. shortest path) regardless of their initial starting point (mean score: 2.50 points ±0.65 SD). In contrast, directed navigators were more likely to use the longest route (mean score: 1.25 points ±0.0 SD) (t = 5.03, p = 0.0002) (
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone-0044958-g002">fig.2</xref>
C). While there was also a trend for faster navigation times in the gamer group, the performance was not significantly different (gamers: 61.4 sec ±52.7 SD, directed navigators: 73.5 sec ±27.1 SD; t = 0.55, p = 0.59).</p>
<p>In contrast to the results of experiment 1, the higher point score observed in the gamer group as compared to the directed navigators suggests that game-based learning strategy may have conferred an advantage in terms of learning the spatial layout of the target building.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="s3">
<title>Discussion</title>
<p>We demonstrate that early blind individuals were able to interact with an audio-based virtual environment to generate an accurate spatial cognitive map that corresponds to the spatial layout of a target physical building. The accuracy of this mental map was confirmed by the fact that participants were able to transfer acquired spatial information into successful navigation performance carried out in the physical building modeled in a corresponding virtual environment.</p>
<p>It is of particular interest that participants in the gamer group were able to navigate successfully and at a level of performance comparable to the directed navigation strategy. This is despite the fact that gamers were never explicitly told to retain any information regarding the spatial layout of the building, nor were they aware that they would be assessed on their navigation abilities. This suggests that the interactive and immersive nature of the AbES software and more specifically, the goal directed and exploratory structure inherent to the gaming metaphor, allows for spatial cognitive constructs to be learned easily, accurately, and in an implicit manner. Furthermore, the fact that gamers demonstrated superior performance when asked to find their way out of the building by using the shortest route possible (despite a variety of route possibilities) suggests that the gaming strategy allowed for a more robust and flexible mental manipulation of the spatial information acquired. We interpret these findings as indicative of superior contextual learning and transfer of situational knowledge as a result of a greater understanding regarding the spatial inter-relations within the building environment. In contrast, the directed navigator group tended to use the longest route, regardless of the initial starting point. This strategy is likely more akin to a “constrained functionality” and analogous to rote learning methods that typically fail to capture more global contextual and situational relevant information.</p>
<p>Little is known about the nature and form of spatial cognitive maps in the blind and how they are able to generate these mental representations for the purposes of complex navigation tasks. Recent neuroimaging studies have investigated the neural correlates related to way finding processes and key structures appear to be involved. These include the hippocampus (in tactile maze solving
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Gagnon1">[13]</xref>
) and occipital cortical areas (in virtual route recognition
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Kupers1">[14]</xref>
). Wolbers and colleagues have shown (in sighted subjects) that the parahippocampal place area (PPA) and retrosplenial cortex (RSC) are active in both visual and haptic exploration of complex indoor spatial layouts (i.e. 3D geometrical configurations)
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Wolbers1">[15]</xref>
. The findings from this study suggest that these areas may be crucial for modality-independent representations of spatial information processing. It would be interesting to determine if similar networks support high-level abstract representations of space in the blind.</p>
<p>The mechanisms related to the transfer of navigation skills from virtual (as well as other orientation aids such as tactile maps) to real environments remain largely unknown. However, the differences in learning strategy (and effects in behavioral performance) observed in this study may be related to the method through which spatial information is characterized and the resultant spatial cognitive map is developed. Within the context of large-scale environments, survey knowledge (i.e. “allocentric” frame) typically describes a more global or holistic “overview” of the surrounding environment. By comparison, route knowledge (i.e. “egocentric” frame) is characterized as a first-person perspective and is typically a precursor to developing survey level knowledge
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Siegel1">[16]</xref>
. Flexible route strategies generated from survey level knowledge are key for efficient navigation and way finding, particularly in unfamiliar environments
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Lederman1">[12]</xref>
. In the absence of sight, blind individuals are believed to be more reliant on route knowledge despite the fact that developing “higher level” knowledge and spatial skills are considered crucial for promoting greater independence during way finding
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Blasch1">[10]</xref>
.</p>
<p>In our study, it appears that route level knowledge was obtained through structured and serial learning of the target navigation paths (as evidenced in the directed navigator group), yet there was an apparent lack of survey level knowledge needed for greater success in the drop off task. In contrast, individuals in the gamer group appeared to have a more flexible and robust understanding of their contextual surroundings and possessed a spatial cognitive map that could be manipulated to generate alternate navigation routes. It is possible that acquiring contextual spatial information within a gaming context facilitates a form of visuo-spatial imagery in the blind
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Cattaneo1">[17]</xref>
. This in turn, could allow for the generation of multiple allocentric representations crucial to developing survey level knowledge. Key directions for future research will be to understand how the blind are able to generate accurate and robust spatial information in the absence of sight and how learning through a gaming context facilitates this process.</p>
<p>It is worth acknowledging that the numerous efforts are currently being pursued to improve spatial perception and navigation skills in the blind. These include the development of virtual environments
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Lahav1">[18]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Lahav2">[19]</xref>
as well as sensory substitution devices (SSDs)
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Chebat1">[20]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Giudice1">[21]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Johnson1">[22]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Kalia1">[23]</xref>
. Early results have been promising and design enhancements continue to develop. However, the steep learning curve necessary to develop a high level of proficiency for these devices remains a concern thus limiting the universal adoption of these devices by the blind community. Indeed, it is important that training remains flexible and adaptable so that educational and rehabilitative approaches can be applied to novel and unfamiliar situations and tailored to a person’s particular challenges, needs and learning strategies. Here, the advantage of contextual learning through game play may prove to be a key adjuvant in helping to facilitate this learning process
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Bavelier2">[4]</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Merabet1">[24]</xref>
.</p>
<p>Finally, studies have compared performance in early blind individuals to normally sighted (blindfolded) controls in spatial navigation tasks. For example (and contrary to previously held views), Fortin and colleagues have shown that blind individuals can outperform their sighted (blindfolded) counterparts in a route learning task
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="pone.0044958-Fortin1">[25]</xref>
. As AbES was specifically designed for the blind community to serve as a potential rehabilitative tool, blindfolded sighted controls were not used in this study. However, the role of previous visual experience on navigation performance remains crucial to our understanding of how spatial mental representations are generated. Ongoing studies will assess performance in late blind individuals in order to address this important issue and keep with the overall goals of developing novel rehabilitative and instructional tools for the blind to promote independence in a society heavily reliant on vision.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="methods" id="s4">
<title>Methods</title>
<sec id="s4a">
<title>Participants</title>
<p>Seventeen early blind participants (all with documented profound blindness acquired prior to the age of 3; see
<xref ref-type="table" rid="pone-0044958-t001">table 1</xref>
) not previously familiar with the spatial layout of the target building, participated in the study. Participants were randomized to one of two groups; 1) gamers and 2) directed navigators. At no time were the participants informed of the overall purpose of the study nor were they instructed to recall the spatial layout of the building while playing the game. All participants were blindfolded throughout the training and behavioral assessments. Subjects provided signed informed consent prior to participation and the study was approved by the institutional review board of the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary.</p>
<table-wrap id="pone-0044958-t001" orientation="portrait" position="float">
<object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0044958.t001</object-id>
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Study Participants.</title>
</caption>
<alternatives>
<graphic id="pone-0044958-t001-1" xlink:href="pone.0044958.t001"></graphic>
<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
<colgroup span="1">
<col align="left" span="1"></col>
<col align="center" span="1"></col>
<col align="center" span="1"></col>
<col align="center" span="1"></col>
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Subject</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Age</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Gender</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cause of Blindness</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Gamer</italic>
</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">familial exudative vitreo retinopathy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">complications due to spinal meningitis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">glaucoma</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">41</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">juvenile macular degeneration</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinopathy of prematurity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Peter’s anomaly</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinopathy of prematurity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">38</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinitis pigmentosa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinopathy of prematurity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<italic>Directed Navigator</italic>
</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinopathy prematurity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">cataracts and secondary glaucoma</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">33</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinitis pigmentosa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">44</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinitis pigmentosa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">lebers congenital amaurosis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">glaucoma</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">m</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">optic atrophy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">f</td>
<td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">retinitis pigmentosa</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</alternatives>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec id="s4b">
<title>Software</title>
<p>Audio-based Environment Stimulator (AbES) was developed using the XNA programming platform. Based on an original architectural floor plan of an existing building (located at the Carroll Center for the Blind, Newton, MA), a virtual rendering of a modern two-story building was generated. The building includes 23 rooms, a series of connecting corridors, 3 separate entrances and 2 stairwells. As such, the building contains multiple route possibilities to enter and exit. Through an interactive interface that greatly engages a user to actively explore a given environment, auditory-based spatial information is dynamically updated, acquired sequentially, and within context. Each virtual step approximates one step in the real physical building. Wearing stereo headphones and using specific key strokes, a user explores and navigates through the building (moving forward, right or left). Spatial and situational information is based on iconic and spatialized sound cues provided after each step taken (e.g. hearing a knocking sound in the left stereo channel represents the presence of a door on the user’s left side). Orientation is based on cardinal compass headings (e.g. “north”) and text through speech (TTS) is used to provide information regarding a user’s current location, orientation and heading as well as the identity of objects and obstacles in their path. The gaming structure organizes the level into several pre-determined corridors, dead ends, and pathways, giving a sense of the entire area laid out over a three dimensional space. Played out in a corresponding three-dimensional auditory virtual world, the user builds a mental representation of the environment based on these sequential and causal encounters within a goal-directed and exploratory framework (see supplemental video of annotated game play).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="s4c">
<title>Behavioral Testing and Data Analysis</title>
<p>Both groups interacted with the AbES software for the same amount of time (total of 90 min spread over 3 training sessions). Following training, the participants were taken to the physical building modeled in the AbES software and navigation performance was assessed using two behavioral tasks. In the first set of experiments, navigation accuracy was measured using of a series of predetermined start and finish points. A maximum time of 6 minutes was allowed for each path attempted. The target paths were all of comparable length and complexity (i.e. number of turns). Navigation success (i.e. number of correct paths, expressed as a percent correct) and time to target (seconds) were scored. As a second experiment, a series of “drop off” tasks were carried out in which participants were placed at pre-determined locations and instructed to exit the building (one of three possible exits) using the shortest path possible. Paths were scored such that the shortest path taken was given maximum points (i.e. 3 for the shortest path, 2 for the second, 1 for the longest, and 0 for an incomplete task). Navigation time was also collected. The two behavioral tasks (physical and drop off) were always assessed in the same order. Navigation performance was recorded using a stopwatch carried by an investigator following behind the study participant. Timing commenced once the subject took their first step and stopped when the subject verbally reported that they were in front of the door of the target destination. All data was analyzed using R statistical software. Two participants (one form each group) were excluded from the analysis. T-tests were performed between each group, and we report mean and standard deviation values with significance set at p<0.05.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ack>
<p>The authors would like to thank the research participants and Rabih Dow, Padma Rajagopal, and the staff of the Carroll Center for the Blind (Newton MA, USA) for their support in carrying out this research as well as Nadia Bolognini and Pawan Sinha for comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.</p>
</ack>
<ref-list>
<title>References</title>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Bavelier1">
<label>1</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Bavelier</surname>
<given-names>D</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Green</surname>
<given-names>CS</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Han</surname>
<given-names>DH</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Renshaw</surname>
<given-names>PF</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Merzenich</surname>
<given-names>MM</given-names>
</name>
,
<etal>et al</etal>
(
<year>2011</year>
)
<article-title>Brains on video games</article-title>
.
<source>Nature reviews Neuroscience</source>
<volume>12</volume>
:
<fpage>763</fpage>
<lpage>768</lpage>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Dede1">
<label>2</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Dede</surname>
<given-names>C</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2009</year>
)
<article-title>Immersive interfaces for engagement and learning</article-title>
.
<source>Science</source>
<volume>323</volume>
:
<fpage>66</fpage>
<lpage>69</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19119219</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Shaffer1">
<label>3</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Shaffer</surname>
<given-names>DW</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Squire</surname>
<given-names>KR</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Halverson</surname>
<given-names>R</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Gee</surname>
<given-names>JP</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2005</year>
)
<article-title>Video Games and the Future of Learning</article-title>
.
<source>Phi Delta Kappan</source>
<volume>87</volume>
:
<fpage>104</fpage>
<lpage>111</lpage>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Bavelier2">
<label>4</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Bavelier</surname>
<given-names>D</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Green</surname>
<given-names>CS</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Dye</surname>
<given-names>MW</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2010</year>
)
<article-title>Children, wired: for better and for worse</article-title>
.
<source>Neuron</source>
<volume>67</volume>
:
<fpage>692</fpage>
<lpage>701</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20826302</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Lange1">
<label>5</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="book">Lange B, Koenig S, Chang CY, McConnell E, Suma E, et al.. (2012) Designing informed game-based rehabilitation tasks leveraging advances in virtual reality. Disability and rehabilitation.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Loomis1">
<label>6</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Loomis</surname>
<given-names>JM</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Klatzky</surname>
<given-names>RL</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Golledge</surname>
<given-names>RG</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2001</year>
)
<article-title>Navigating without vision: basic and applied research</article-title>
.
<source>Optometry and vision science: official publication of the American Academy of Optometry</source>
<volume>78</volume>
:
<fpage>282</fpage>
<lpage>289</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11384005</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Strelow1">
<label>7</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Strelow</surname>
<given-names>ER</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>1985</year>
)
<article-title>What is needed for a theory of mobility: direct perception and cognitive maps–lessons from the blind</article-title>
.
<source>Psychological review</source>
<volume>92</volume>
:
<fpage>226</fpage>
<lpage>248</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3887451</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Ashmead1">
<label>8</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Ashmead</surname>
<given-names>DH</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Hill</surname>
<given-names>EW</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Talor</surname>
<given-names>CR</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>1989</year>
)
<article-title>Obstacle perception by congenitally blind children</article-title>
.
<source>Perception & psychophysics</source>
<volume>46</volume>
:
<fpage>425</fpage>
<lpage>433</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">2813027</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-vonSenden1">
<label>9</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="book">von Senden M (1960) Space and sight: the perception of space and shape in the congenitally blind before and after operation: Free Press.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Blasch1">
<label>10</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="book">Blasch BB, Wiener WR, Welsh RL, editors (1997) Foundations of Orientation and Mobility (2nd Edition). New York, NY: AFB Press.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-ThinusBlanc1">
<label>11</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Thinus-Blanc</surname>
<given-names>C</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Gaunet</surname>
<given-names>F</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>1997</year>
)
<article-title>Representation of space in blind persons: vision as a spatial sense?</article-title>
<source>Psychological bulletin</source>
<volume>121</volume>
:
<fpage>20</fpage>
<lpage>42</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9064698</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Lederman1">
<label>12</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Lederman</surname>
<given-names>SJ</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Klatzky</surname>
<given-names>RL</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Barber</surname>
<given-names>PO</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>1985</year>
)
<article-title>Spatial and movement-based heuristics for encoding pattern information through touch</article-title>
.
<source>Journal of experimental psychology General</source>
<volume>114</volume>
:
<fpage>33</fpage>
<lpage>49</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3156945</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Gagnon1">
<label>13</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Gagnon</surname>
<given-names>L</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Schneider</surname>
<given-names>FC</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Siebner</surname>
<given-names>HR</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Paulson</surname>
<given-names>OB</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Kupers</surname>
<given-names>R</given-names>
</name>
,
<etal>et al</etal>
(
<year>2012</year>
)
<article-title>Activation of the hippocampal complex during tactile maze solving in congenitally blind subjects</article-title>
.
<source>Neuropsychologia</source>
<volume>50</volume>
:
<fpage>1663</fpage>
<lpage>1671</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">22483742</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Kupers1">
<label>14</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Kupers</surname>
<given-names>R</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Chebat</surname>
<given-names>DR</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Madsen</surname>
<given-names>KH</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Paulson</surname>
<given-names>OB</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Ptito</surname>
<given-names>M</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2010</year>
)
<article-title>Neural correlates of virtual route recognition in congenital blindness</article-title>
.
<source>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</source>
<volume>107</volume>
:
<fpage>12716</fpage>
<lpage>12721</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20616025</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Wolbers1">
<label>15</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Wolbers</surname>
<given-names>T</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Klatzky</surname>
<given-names>RL</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Loomis</surname>
<given-names>JM</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Wutte</surname>
<given-names>MG</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Giudice</surname>
<given-names>NA</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2011</year>
)
<article-title>Modality-independent coding of spatial layout in the human brain</article-title>
.
<source>Current biology: CB</source>
<volume>21</volume>
:
<fpage>984</fpage>
<lpage>989</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21620708</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Siegel1">
<label>16</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Siegel</surname>
<given-names>AW</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>White</surname>
<given-names>SH</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>1975</year>
)
<article-title>The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments</article-title>
.
<source>Advances in child development and behavior</source>
<volume>10</volume>
:
<fpage>9</fpage>
<lpage>55</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">1101663</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Cattaneo1">
<label>17</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Cattaneo</surname>
<given-names>Z</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Vecchi</surname>
<given-names>T</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Cornoldi</surname>
<given-names>C</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Mammarella</surname>
<given-names>I</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Bonino</surname>
<given-names>D</given-names>
</name>
,
<etal>et al</etal>
(
<year>2008</year>
)
<article-title>Imagery and spatial processes in blindness and visual impairment</article-title>
.
<source>Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews</source>
<volume>32</volume>
:
<fpage>1346</fpage>
<lpage>1360</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18571726</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Lahav1">
<label>18</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Lahav</surname>
<given-names>O</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2006</year>
)
<article-title>Using virtual environment to improve spatial perception by people who are blind</article-title>
.
<source>Cyberpsychology & behavior: the impact of the Internet, multimedia and virtual reality on behavior and society</source>
<volume>9</volume>
:
<fpage>174</fpage>
<lpage>177</lpage>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Lahav2">
<label>19</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="book">Lahav O, Schloerb DW, Srinivasan MA (2011) Newly blind persons using virtual environment system in a traditional orientation and mobility rehabilitation program: a case study. Disability and rehabilitation Assistive technology.</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Chebat1">
<label>20</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Chebat</surname>
<given-names>DR</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Schneider</surname>
<given-names>FC</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Kupers</surname>
<given-names>R</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Ptito</surname>
<given-names>M</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2011</year>
)
<article-title>Navigation with a sensory substitution device in congenitally blind individuals</article-title>
.
<source>Neuroreport</source>
<volume>22</volume>
:
<fpage>342</fpage>
<lpage>347</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21451425</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Giudice1">
<label>21</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Giudice</surname>
<given-names>NA</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Bakdash</surname>
<given-names>JZ</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Legge</surname>
<given-names>GE</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2007</year>
)
<article-title>Wayfinding with words: spatial learning and navigation using dynamically updated verbal descriptions</article-title>
.
<source>Psychological research</source>
<volume>71</volume>
:
<fpage>347</fpage>
<lpage>358</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16983582</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Johnson1">
<label>22</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Johnson</surname>
<given-names>LA</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Higgins</surname>
<given-names>CM</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2006</year>
)
<article-title>A navigation aid for the blind using tactile-visual sensory substitution</article-title>
.
<source>Conference proceedings: Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Conference</source>
<volume>1</volume>
:
<fpage>6289</fpage>
<lpage>6292</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17945950</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Kalia1">
<label>23</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Kalia</surname>
<given-names>AA</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Legge</surname>
<given-names>GE</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Roy</surname>
<given-names>R</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Ogale</surname>
<given-names>A</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2010</year>
)
<article-title>Assessment of Indoor Route-finding Technology for People with Visual Impairment</article-title>
.
<source>Journal of visual impairment & blindness</source>
<volume>104</volume>
:
<fpage>135</fpage>
<lpage>147</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21869851</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Merabet1">
<label>24</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Merabet</surname>
<given-names>L</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Sánchez</surname>
<given-names>J</given-names>
</name>
(
<year>2009</year>
)
<article-title>Audio-based Navigation Using Virtual Environments: Combining Technology and Neuroscience</article-title>
.
<source>AER Journal: Research and Practice in Visual Impairment and Blindness</source>
<volume>2</volume>
:
<fpage>128</fpage>
<lpage>137</lpage>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="pone.0044958-Fortin1">
<label>25</label>
<mixed-citation publication-type="journal">
<name>
<surname>Fortin</surname>
<given-names>M</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Voss</surname>
<given-names>P</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Lord</surname>
<given-names>C</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Lassonde</surname>
<given-names>M</given-names>
</name>
,
<name>
<surname>Pruessner</surname>
<given-names>J</given-names>
</name>
,
<etal>et al</etal>
(
<year>2008</year>
)
<article-title>Wayfinding in the blind: larger hippocampal volume and supranormal spatial navigation</article-title>
.
<source>Brain: a journal of neurology</source>
<volume>131</volume>
:
<fpage>2995</fpage>
<lpage>3005</lpage>
<pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18854327</pub-id>
</mixed-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</pmc>
<affiliations>
<list>
<country>
<li>Chili</li>
<li>États-Unis</li>
</country>
<region>
<li>Massachusetts</li>
</region>
</list>
<tree>
<country name="États-Unis">
<region name="Massachusetts">
<name sortKey="Merabet, Lotfi B" sort="Merabet, Lotfi B" uniqKey="Merabet L" first="Lotfi B." last="Merabet">Lotfi B. Merabet</name>
</region>
<name sortKey="Connors, Erin C" sort="Connors, Erin C" uniqKey="Connors E" first="Erin C." last="Connors">Erin C. Connors</name>
<name sortKey="Halko, Mark A" sort="Halko, Mark A" uniqKey="Halko M" first="Mark A." last="Halko">Mark A. Halko</name>
</country>
<country name="Chili">
<noRegion>
<name sortKey="Sanchez, Jaime" sort="Sanchez, Jaime" uniqKey="Sanchez J" first="Jaime" last="Sánchez">Jaime Sánchez</name>
</noRegion>
</country>
</tree>
</affiliations>
</record>

Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)

EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Ticri/CIDE/explor/HapticV1/Data/Ncbi/Merge
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 002264 | SxmlIndent | more

Ou

HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Ncbi/Merge/biblio.hfd -nk 002264 | SxmlIndent | more

Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri

{{Explor lien
   |wiki=    Ticri/CIDE
   |area=    HapticV1
   |flux=    Ncbi
   |étape=   Merge
   |type=    RBID
   |clé=     PMC:3446956
   |texte=   Teaching the Blind to Find Their Way by Playing Video Games
}}

Pour générer des pages wiki

HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Ncbi/Merge/RBID.i   -Sk "pubmed:23028703" \
       | HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Ncbi/Merge/biblio.hfd   \
       | NlmPubMed2Wicri -a HapticV1 

Wicri

This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.23.
Data generation: Mon Jun 13 01:09:46 2016. Site generation: Wed Mar 6 09:54:07 2024