Wireless in-situ Sensor Network for Agriculture and Water Monitoring on a River Basin Scale in Southern Finland: Evaluation from a Data User’s Perspective
Identifieur interne : 000311 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 000310; suivant : 000312Wireless in-situ Sensor Network for Agriculture and Water Monitoring on a River Basin Scale in Southern Finland: Evaluation from a Data User’s Perspective
Auteurs : Niina Kotam Ki ; Sirpa Thessler ; Jari Koskiaho ; Asko O. Hannukkala ; Hanna Huitu ; Timo Huttula ; Jukka Havento ; Markku J RvenpSource :
- Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) [ 1424-8220 ] ; 2009.
Abstract
Sensor networks are increasingly being implemented for environmental monitoring and agriculture to provide spatially accurate and continuous environmental information and (near) real-time applications. These networks provide a large amount of data which poses challenges for ensuring data quality and extracting relevant information. In the present paper we describe a river basin scale wireless sensor network for agriculture and water monitoring. The network, called SoilWeather, is unique and the first of this type in Finland. The performance of the network is assessed from the user and maintainer perspectives, concentrating on data quality, network maintenance and applications. The results showed that the SoilWeather network has been functioning in a relatively reliable way, but also that the maintenance and data quality assurance by automatic algorithms and calibration samples requires a lot of effort, especially in continuous water monitoring over large areas. We see great benefits on sensor networks enabling continuous, real-time monitoring, while data quality control and maintenance efforts highlight the need for tight collaboration between sensor and sensor network owners to decrease costs and increase the quality of the sensor data in large scale applications.
Url:
DOI: 10.3390/s90402862
PubMed: 22574050
PubMed Central: 3348794
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Wireless <italic>in-situ</italic> Sensor Network for Agriculture and Water Monitoring on a River Basin Scale in Southern Finland: Evaluation from a Data User’s Perspective</title><author><name sortKey="Kotam Ki, Niina" sort="Kotam Ki, Niina" uniqKey="Kotam Ki N" first="Niina" last="Kotam Ki">Niina Kotam Ki</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-09-02862"> Finnish Environment Institute, Jyväskylä Office / PO Box 35, FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä / Finland; E-Mail:<email>timo.huttula@environment.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Thessler, Sirpa" sort="Thessler, Sirpa" uniqKey="Thessler S" first="Sirpa" last="Thessler">Sirpa Thessler</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Koskiaho, Jari" sort="Koskiaho, Jari" uniqKey="Koskiaho J" first="Jari" last="Koskiaho">Jari Koskiaho</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-sensors-09-02862"> Finnish Environment Institute / PO Box 140, FIN-00251 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mail:<email>jari.koskiaho@environment.fi</email>;</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hannukkala, Asko O" sort="Hannukkala, Asko O" uniqKey="Hannukkala A" first="Asko O." last="Hannukkala">Asko O. Hannukkala</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af4-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Plant Protection, R-building, 31600 Jokioinen, Finland; E-Mail:<email>asko.hannukkala@mtt.fi</email>;</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Huitu, Hanna" sort="Huitu, Hanna" uniqKey="Huitu H" first="Hanna" last="Huitu">Hanna Huitu</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Huttula, Timo" sort="Huttula, Timo" uniqKey="Huttula T" first="Timo" last="Huttula">Timo Huttula</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-09-02862"> Finnish Environment Institute, Jyväskylä Office / PO Box 35, FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä / Finland; E-Mail:<email>timo.huttula@environment.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Havento, Jukka" sort="Havento, Jukka" uniqKey="Havento J" first="Jukka" last="Havento">Jukka Havento</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="J Rvenp, Markku" sort="J Rvenp, Markku" uniqKey="J Rvenp M" first="Markku" last="J Rvenp">Markku J Rvenp</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">22574050</idno><idno type="pmc">3348794</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3348794</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3348794</idno><idno type="doi">10.3390/s90402862</idno><date when="2009">2009</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000654</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">000654</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">000608</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Ncbi/Merge">000311</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Wireless <italic>in-situ</italic> Sensor Network for Agriculture and Water Monitoring on a River Basin Scale in Southern Finland: Evaluation from a Data User’s Perspective</title><author><name sortKey="Kotam Ki, Niina" sort="Kotam Ki, Niina" uniqKey="Kotam Ki N" first="Niina" last="Kotam Ki">Niina Kotam Ki</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-09-02862"> Finnish Environment Institute, Jyväskylä Office / PO Box 35, FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä / Finland; E-Mail:<email>timo.huttula@environment.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Thessler, Sirpa" sort="Thessler, Sirpa" uniqKey="Thessler S" first="Sirpa" last="Thessler">Sirpa Thessler</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Koskiaho, Jari" sort="Koskiaho, Jari" uniqKey="Koskiaho J" first="Jari" last="Koskiaho">Jari Koskiaho</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3-sensors-09-02862"> Finnish Environment Institute / PO Box 140, FIN-00251 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mail:<email>jari.koskiaho@environment.fi</email>;</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hannukkala, Asko O" sort="Hannukkala, Asko O" uniqKey="Hannukkala A" first="Asko O." last="Hannukkala">Asko O. Hannukkala</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af4-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Plant Protection, R-building, 31600 Jokioinen, Finland; E-Mail:<email>asko.hannukkala@mtt.fi</email>;</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Huitu, Hanna" sort="Huitu, Hanna" uniqKey="Huitu H" first="Hanna" last="Huitu">Hanna Huitu</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Huttula, Timo" sort="Huttula, Timo" uniqKey="Huttula T" first="Timo" last="Huttula">Timo Huttula</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-09-02862"> Finnish Environment Institute, Jyväskylä Office / PO Box 35, FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä / Finland; E-Mail:<email>timo.huttula@environment.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Havento, Jukka" sort="Havento, Jukka" uniqKey="Havento J" first="Jukka" last="Havento">Jukka Havento</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="J Rvenp, Markku" sort="J Rvenp, Markku" uniqKey="J Rvenp M" first="Markku" last="J Rvenp">Markku J Rvenp</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</title><idno type="eISSN">1424-8220</idno><imprint><date when="2009">2009</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Sensor networks are increasingly being implemented for environmental monitoring and agriculture to provide spatially accurate and continuous environmental information and (near) real-time applications. These networks provide a large amount of data which poses challenges for ensuring data quality and extracting relevant information. In the present paper we describe a river basin scale wireless sensor network for agriculture and water monitoring. The network, called SoilWeather, is unique and the first of this type in Finland. The performance of the network is assessed from the user and maintainer perspectives, concentrating on data quality, network maintenance and applications. The results showed that the SoilWeather network has been functioning in a relatively reliable way, but also that the maintenance and data quality assurance by automatic algorithms and calibration samples requires a lot of effort, especially in continuous water monitoring over large areas. We see great benefits on sensor networks enabling continuous, real-time monitoring, while data quality control and maintenance efforts highlight the need for tight collaboration between sensor and sensor network owners to decrease costs and increase the quality of the sensor data in large scale applications.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wang, N" uniqKey="Wang N">N. Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zhang, N" uniqKey="Zhang N">N. Zhang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wang, M" uniqKey="Wang M">M. Wang</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Liang, S H L" uniqKey="Liang S">S.H.L. Liang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Croitoru, A" uniqKey="Croitoru A">A. Croitoru</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vincent Tao, C" uniqKey="Vincent Tao C">C. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Sensors (Basel)</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Sensors (Basel)</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1424-8220</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Molecular Diversity Preservation International (MDPI)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">22574050</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3348794</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/s90402862</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">sensors-09-02862</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Wireless <italic>in-situ</italic> Sensor Network for Agriculture and Water Monitoring on a River Basin Scale in Southern Finland: Evaluation from a Data User’s Perspective</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kotamäki</surname><given-names>Niina</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-09-02862"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-sensors-09-02862"><sup>*</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Thessler</surname><given-names>Sirpa</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-sensors-09-02862"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Koskiaho</surname><given-names>Jari</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-sensors-09-02862"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Hannukkala</surname><given-names>Asko O.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4-sensors-09-02862"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Huitu</surname><given-names>Hanna</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-sensors-09-02862"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Huttula</surname><given-names>Timo</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-09-02862"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Havento</surname><given-names>Jukka</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-sensors-09-02862"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Järvenpää</surname><given-names>Markku</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-sensors-09-02862"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="af1-sensors-09-02862"><label>1</label> Finnish Environment Institute, Jyväskylä Office / PO Box 35, FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä / Finland; E-Mail:<email>timo.huttula@environment.fi</email></aff><aff id="af2-sensors-09-02862"><label>2</label> MTT Agrifood Research Finland / Luutnantintie 13, 00410 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mails:<email>sirpa.thessler@mtt.fi</email>;<email>hanna.huitu@mtt.fi</email>;<email>jukka.havento@mtt.fi</email>;<email>markku.jarvenpaa@mtt.fi</email></aff><aff id="af3-sensors-09-02862"><label>3</label> Finnish Environment Institute / PO Box 140, FIN-00251 Helsinki, Finland; E-Mail:<email>jari.koskiaho@environment.fi</email>;</aff><aff id="af4-sensors-09-02862"><label>4</label> MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Plant Protection, R-building, 31600 Jokioinen, Finland; E-Mail:<email>asko.hannukkala@mtt.fi</email>;</aff><author-notes><corresp id="c1-sensors-09-02862"><label>*</label>Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: <email>niina.kotamaki@environment.fi</email>; Tel.: +358-40-148573; Fax: +358-14-4497159</corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2009</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>21</day><month>4</month><year>2009</year></pub-date><volume>9</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>2862</fpage><lpage>2883</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>4</day><month>3</month><year>2009</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>20</day><month>4</month><year>2009</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>21</day><month>4</month><year>2009</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2009 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2009</copyright-year><license><license-p><pmc-comment>CREATIVE COMMONS</pmc-comment>This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/</ext-link>).</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Sensor networks are increasingly being implemented for environmental monitoring and agriculture to provide spatially accurate and continuous environmental information and (near) real-time applications. These networks provide a large amount of data which poses challenges for ensuring data quality and extracting relevant information. In the present paper we describe a river basin scale wireless sensor network for agriculture and water monitoring. The network, called SoilWeather, is unique and the first of this type in Finland. The performance of the network is assessed from the user and maintainer perspectives, concentrating on data quality, network maintenance and applications. The results showed that the SoilWeather network has been functioning in a relatively reliable way, but also that the maintenance and data quality assurance by automatic algorithms and calibration samples requires a lot of effort, especially in continuous water monitoring over large areas. We see great benefits on sensor networks enabling continuous, real-time monitoring, while data quality control and maintenance efforts highlight the need for tight collaboration between sensor and sensor network owners to decrease costs and increase the quality of the sensor data in large scale applications.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Sensor networks</kwd><kwd>agriculture</kwd><kwd>environmental monitoring</kwd><kwd>data quality</kwd><kwd>network maintenance</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="f1-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p>Location of the Karjaanjoki river basin in Finland and the intensive measuring areas of Lake Hiidenvesi, the Hovi farm and the Vihtijoki sub-catchment.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f1"></graphic></fig><fig id="f2-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p>The location of the different SoilWeather WSN stations and sensors in the Karjaanjoki river basin. (a) Nutrient measurement stations. (b) Water turbidity sensors. (c) Weather stations. (d) Soil moisture sensors.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f2"></graphic></fig><fig id="f3-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 3.</label><caption><p>The locations of the SoilWeather WSN's weather stations, soil moisture sensors, nutrient stations and turbidity sensors in the area of Hovi farm.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f3"></graphic></fig><fig id="f4-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 4.</label><caption><p>The data flow (white arrows) and communication system with main data services of SoilWeather WSN. a-Lab sensor nodes refer to nodes employing a-Weather station cores, Luode sensor nodes refer to nutrient measuring stations.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f4"></graphic></fig><fig id="f5-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 5.</label><caption><p>Problems that have occurred in SoilWeather WSN data. Y-axis denotes different parameters and the x-axis denotes time (approx. 1 week). (a) Suspicious spike in air temperature data. (b) Gaps in the air temperature data. (c) Wind speed is constantly 0 m/s (no variation).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f5"></graphic></fig><fig id="f6-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 6.</label><caption><p>Potato late blight can totally destroy potato crop. Consecutive fungicide applications (green area in the front) are needed for effective control of blight. (Photo: MTT.)</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f6"></graphic></fig><fig id="f7-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 7.</label><caption><p>An example of the effect of a turbidity wiper installed to one of the SoilWeather WSN's turbidity sensors. Turbidity measures a month before and after the wiper has been installed. The mean and standard deviation before and after installation.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f7"></graphic></fig><fig id="f8-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 8.</label><caption><p>Duration of periods (hours), when relative humidity was more than 90 % and temperature over 8 °C and progress of potato late blight epidemic (percentage of defoliated leaf area) at Jokioinen in non-protected susceptible potato cultivar in 2008.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f8"></graphic></fig><fig id="f9-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Figure 9.</label><caption><p>Turbidity samples (dots) and turbidity measured by spectrometer (solid line) from the constructed wetland of Hovi.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-09-02862f9"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="t1-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Table 1.</label><caption><p>The sensors used and the parameters measured in the SoilWeather WSN.</p></caption><table frame="box" rules="cols"><thead><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Sensor node</bold></th><th align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Sensors</bold></th><th align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Parameters</bold></th><th align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Producer's web page</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="5" colspan="1">a-Weather station basic core</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pt1000</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Temperature</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.a-lab.fi">www.a-lab.fi</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">AST2 Vaisala HMP50</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Humidity</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.vaisala.com">www.vaisala.com</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Davis Rain Collector II</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Precipitation</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.davisnet.com">www.davisnet.com</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Davis Anemometer</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wind direction</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Davis Anemometer</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wind speed</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="4" colspan="1">Additional parameters</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Decagon ECHO (capacitance)</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Soil moisture</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.decagon.com">www.decagon.com</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">FDR (Frequency Domain Reflectometry)</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Soil moisture</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.a-lab.fi">www.a-lab.fi</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">OBS3+</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Water turbidity</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.d-a-instruments.com/">www.d-a-instruments.com/</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Keller 0.25 bar</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Water level</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.keller-druck.ch">www.keller-druck.ch</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="4" colspan="1">Nutrient measurement station</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="4" colspan="1">s::can spectrometer</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nitrate conc.</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.s-can.at/">www.s-can.at/</ext-link></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Water turbidity</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Water level</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Water temperature</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t2-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Table 2.</label><caption><p>The monthly range limits (°C) for air temperature in hemiboreal climatic zone. Warning_low and warning_high denotes the range limits for suspicious values, error_low and error_high the range limits for meteorologically impossible values.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>MONTH</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>WARNING_LOW</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>WARNING_HIGH</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>ERROR_LOW</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>ERROR_HIGH</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−37</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−47</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−35</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−45</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">17</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−31</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−41</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−19</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">23</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−29</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−7</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−17</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">31</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−2</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−12</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">33</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−8</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−10</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">36</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−7</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−17</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">31</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−16</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">19</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−26</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">28</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−23</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−33</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−35</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−45</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t3-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Table 3.</label><caption><p>Maintenance intensity of SoilWeather WSN during 6/2007–12/2008.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="cols"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Problem</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Manifestation in the data</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Number of occasions</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1. Battery voltage decreasing</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Missing data and/or air humidity decreases too much</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">48</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2. Turbidity sensor contaminated</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Turbidity values too high and increasing</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">64</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3. Problems with battery contact</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Missing data or station down</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ca. 40</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4. Organisms on the turbidity sensor</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Saw tooth pattern in the data</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">several</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5. Rain gauge clogged up</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">No accumulation of the precipitation despite of the nearby rain</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">18</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6. Station fell down</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Possible problems with wind data and/or no precipitation</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7. Station malfunction</td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Missing data or station down regardless of battery condition</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t4-sensors-09-02862" position="float"><label>Table 4.</label><caption><p>Number of the suspicious and erroneous measurements by range test during 7/2008–10/2008.</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="cols"><thead><tr><th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Parameter</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Number of suspicious measurements</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Number of erroneous measurements</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Air temperature</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">114</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Water level</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">900</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Air pressure</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">250</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Turbidity</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">323</td><td align="center" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">80</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list></list><tree><noCountry><name sortKey="Hannukkala, Asko O" sort="Hannukkala, Asko O" uniqKey="Hannukkala A" first="Asko O." last="Hannukkala">Asko O. Hannukkala</name><name sortKey="Havento, Jukka" sort="Havento, Jukka" uniqKey="Havento J" first="Jukka" last="Havento">Jukka Havento</name><name sortKey="Huitu, Hanna" sort="Huitu, Hanna" uniqKey="Huitu H" first="Hanna" last="Huitu">Hanna Huitu</name><name sortKey="Huttula, Timo" sort="Huttula, Timo" uniqKey="Huttula T" first="Timo" last="Huttula">Timo Huttula</name><name sortKey="J Rvenp, Markku" sort="J Rvenp, Markku" uniqKey="J Rvenp M" first="Markku" last="J Rvenp">Markku J Rvenp</name><name sortKey="Koskiaho, Jari" sort="Koskiaho, Jari" uniqKey="Koskiaho J" first="Jari" last="Koskiaho">Jari Koskiaho</name><name sortKey="Kotam Ki, Niina" sort="Kotam Ki, Niina" uniqKey="Kotam Ki N" first="Niina" last="Kotam Ki">Niina Kotam Ki</name><name sortKey="Thessler, Sirpa" sort="Thessler, Sirpa" uniqKey="Thessler S" first="Sirpa" last="Thessler">Sirpa Thessler</name></noCountry></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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