The Emerging Role of Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution in Cardiovascular Disease
Identifieur interne : 000237 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000236; suivant : 000238The Emerging Role of Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution in Cardiovascular Disease
Auteurs : Jacinta C. Uzoigwe ; Thavaleak Prum ; Eric Bresnahan ; Mahdi GarelnabiSource :
- North American Journal of Medical Sciences [ 2250-1541 ] ; 2013.
Abstract
Outdoor and indoor air pollution poses a significant cardiovascular risk, and has been associated with atherosclerosis, the main underlying pathology in many cardiovascular diseases. Although, it is well known that exposure to air pollution causes pulmonary disease, recent studies have shown that cardiovascular health consequences of air pollution generally equal or exceed those due to pulmonary diseases. The objective of this article is to evaluate the current evidence on the emerging role of environmental air pollutions in cardiovascular disease, with specific focus on the types of air pollutants and mechanisms of air pollution-induced cardiotoxicity. Published literature on pollution was systematically reviewed and cited in this article. It is hoped that this review will provide a better understanding of the harmful cardiovascular effects induced by air pollution exposure. This will help to bring a better understanding on the possible preventive health measures and will also serve regulatory agencies and researchers. In addition, elucidating the biological mechanisms underlying the link between air pollution and cardiovascular disease is an essential target in developing novel pharmacological strategies aimed at decreasing adverse effects of air pollution on cardiovascular system.
Url:
DOI: 10.4103/1947-2714.117290
PubMed: 24083218
PubMed Central: 3784920
Links to Exploration step
PMC:3784920Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">The Emerging Role of Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution in Cardiovascular Disease</title><author><name sortKey="Uzoigwe, Jacinta C" sort="Uzoigwe, Jacinta C" uniqKey="Uzoigwe J" first="Jacinta C." last="Uzoigwe">Jacinta C. Uzoigwe</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Prum, Thavaleak" sort="Prum, Thavaleak" uniqKey="Prum T" first="Thavaleak" last="Prum">Thavaleak Prum</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bresnahan, Eric" sort="Bresnahan, Eric" uniqKey="Bresnahan E" first="Eric" last="Bresnahan">Eric Bresnahan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Garelnabi, Mahdi" sort="Garelnabi, Mahdi" uniqKey="Garelnabi M" first="Mahdi" last="Garelnabi">Mahdi Garelnabi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">24083218</idno><idno type="pmc">3784920</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3784920</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3784920</idno><idno type="doi">10.4103/1947-2714.117290</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000237</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">The Emerging Role of Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution in Cardiovascular Disease</title><author><name sortKey="Uzoigwe, Jacinta C" sort="Uzoigwe, Jacinta C" uniqKey="Uzoigwe J" first="Jacinta C." last="Uzoigwe">Jacinta C. Uzoigwe</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Prum, Thavaleak" sort="Prum, Thavaleak" uniqKey="Prum T" first="Thavaleak" last="Prum">Thavaleak Prum</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bresnahan, Eric" sort="Bresnahan, Eric" uniqKey="Bresnahan E" first="Eric" last="Bresnahan">Eric Bresnahan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Garelnabi, Mahdi" sort="Garelnabi, Mahdi" uniqKey="Garelnabi M" first="Mahdi" last="Garelnabi">Mahdi Garelnabi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">North American Journal of Medical Sciences</title><idno type="ISSN">2250-1541</idno><idno type="eISSN">1947-2714</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Outdoor and indoor air pollution poses a significant cardiovascular risk, and has been associated with atherosclerosis, the main underlying pathology in many cardiovascular diseases. Although, it is well known that exposure to air pollution causes pulmonary disease, recent studies have shown that cardiovascular health consequences of air pollution generally equal or exceed those due to pulmonary diseases. The objective of this article is to evaluate the current evidence on the emerging role of environmental air pollutions in cardiovascular disease, with specific focus on the types of air pollutants and mechanisms of air pollution-induced cardiotoxicity. Published literature on pollution was systematically reviewed and cited in this article. It is hoped that this review will provide a better understanding of the harmful cardiovascular effects induced by air pollution exposure. This will help to bring a better understanding on the possible preventive health measures and will also serve regulatory agencies and researchers. In addition, elucidating the biological mechanisms underlying the link between air pollution and cardiovascular disease is an essential target in developing novel pharmacological strategies aimed at decreasing adverse effects of air pollution on cardiovascular system.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pope, Ca" uniqKey="Pope C">CA Pope</name></author><author><name sortKey="Burnett, Rt" uniqKey="Burnett R">RT Burnett</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thun, Mj" uniqKey="Thun M">MJ Thun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Calle, Ee" uniqKey="Calle E">EE Calle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Krewski, D" uniqKey="Krewski D">D Krewski</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ito, K" uniqKey="Ito K">K Ito</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pope, Ca" uniqKey="Pope C">CA Pope</name></author><author><name sortKey="Burnett, Rt" uniqKey="Burnett R">RT Burnett</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thurston, Gd" uniqKey="Thurston G">GD Thurston</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thun, Mj" uniqKey="Thun M">MJ Thun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Calle, Ee" uniqKey="Calle E">EE Calle</name></author><author><name sortKey="Krewski, D" uniqKey="Krewski D">D Krewski</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Garelnabi, M" uniqKey="Garelnabi M">M Garelnabi</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Shepherd, J" uniqKey="Shepherd J">J Shepherd</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cobbe, Sm" uniqKey="Cobbe S">SM Cobbe</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ford, I" uniqKey="Ford I">I Ford</name></author><author><name sortKey="Isles, Cg" uniqKey="Isles C">CG Isles</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lorimer, Ar" uniqKey="Lorimer A">AR Lorimer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Macfarlane, Pw" uniqKey="Macfarlane P">PW MacFarlane</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Collins, R" uniqKey="Collins R">R Collins</name></author><author><name sortKey="Peto, R" uniqKey="Peto R">R Peto</name></author><author><name sortKey="Macmahon, S" uniqKey="Macmahon S">S MacMahon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hebert, P" uniqKey="Hebert P">P Hebert</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fiebach, Nh" uniqKey="Fiebach N">NH Fiebach</name></author><author><name sortKey="Eberlein, Ka" uniqKey="Eberlein K">KA Eberlein</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Parthasarathy, S" uniqKey="Parthasarathy S">S Parthasarathy</name></author><author><name sortKey="Litvinov, D" uniqKey="Litvinov D">D Litvinov</name></author><author><name sortKey="Selvarajan, K" uniqKey="Selvarajan K">K Selvarajan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Garelnabi, M" uniqKey="Garelnabi M">M Garelnabi</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kushi, Lh" uniqKey="Kushi L">LH Kushi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Folsom, Ar" uniqKey="Folsom A">AR Folsom</name></author><author><name sortKey="Prineas, Rj" uniqKey="Prineas R">RJ Prineas</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mink, Pj" uniqKey="Mink P">PJ Mink</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wu, Y" uniqKey="Wu Y">Y Wu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bostick, Rm" uniqKey="Bostick R">RM Bostick</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Karjalainen, J" uniqKey="Karjalainen J">J Karjalainen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kujala, Um" uniqKey="Kujala U">UM Kujala</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kaprio, J" uniqKey="Kaprio J">J Kaprio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sarna, S" uniqKey="Sarna S">S Sarna</name></author><author><name sortKey="Viitasalo, M" uniqKey="Viitasalo M">M Viitasalo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kannel, Wb" uniqKey="Kannel W">WB Kannel</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mcgee, Dl" uniqKey="Mcgee D">DL McGee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schatzkin, A" uniqKey="Schatzkin A">A Schatzkin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ruston, A" uniqKey="Ruston A">A Ruston</name></author><author><name sortKey="Clayton, J" uniqKey="Clayton J">J Clayton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Calnan, M" uniqKey="Calnan M">M Calnan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="O Oole, Te" uniqKey="O Oole T">TE O’Toole</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zheng, Yt" uniqKey="Zheng Y">YT Zheng</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hellmann, J" uniqKey="Hellmann J">J Hellmann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Conklin, Dj" uniqKey="Conklin D">DJ Conklin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Barski, O" uniqKey="Barski O">O Barski</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bhatnagar, A" uniqKey="Bhatnagar A">A Bhatnagar</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sun, Q" uniqKey="Sun Q">Q Sun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yue, P" uniqKey="Yue P">P Yue</name></author><author><name sortKey="Deiuliis, Ja" uniqKey="Deiuliis J">JA Deiuliis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lumeng, Cn" uniqKey="Lumeng C">CN Lumeng</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kampfrath, T" uniqKey="Kampfrath T">T Kampfrath</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mikolaj, Mb" uniqKey="Mikolaj M">MB Mikolaj</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Poloniecki, Jd" uniqKey="Poloniecki J">JD Poloniecki</name></author><author><name sortKey="Atkinson, Rw" uniqKey="Atkinson R">RW Atkinson</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Leon, Ap" uniqKey="De Leon A">AP de Leon</name></author><author><name sortKey="Anderson, Hr" uniqKey="Anderson H">HR Anderson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Peters, A" uniqKey="Peters A">A Peters</name></author><author><name sortKey="Liu, E" uniqKey="Liu E">E Liu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Verrier, Rl" uniqKey="Verrier R">RL Verrier</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, J" uniqKey="Schwartz J">J Schwartz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gold, Dr" uniqKey="Gold D">DR Gold</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mittleman, M" uniqKey="Mittleman M">M Mittleman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Baccarelli, A" uniqKey="Baccarelli A">A Baccarelli</name></author><author><name sortKey="Martinelli, I" uniqKey="Martinelli I">I Martinelli</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zanobetti, A" uniqKey="Zanobetti A">A Zanobetti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grillo, P" uniqKey="Grillo P">P Grillo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hou, Lf" uniqKey="Hou L">LF Hou</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bertazzi, Pa" uniqKey="Bertazzi P">PA Bertazzi</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Grahame, Tj" uniqKey="Grahame T">TJ Grahame</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brook, Rd" uniqKey="Brook R">RD Brook</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rajagopalan, S" uniqKey="Rajagopalan S">S Rajagopalan</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bhaskaran, K" uniqKey="Bhaskaran K">K Bhaskaran</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hajat, S" uniqKey="Hajat S">S Hajat</name></author><author><name sortKey="Haines, A" uniqKey="Haines A">A Haines</name></author><author><name sortKey="Herrett, E" uniqKey="Herrett E">E Herrett</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wilkinson, P" uniqKey="Wilkinson P">P Wilkinson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smeeth, L" uniqKey="Smeeth L">L Smeeth</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kampfrath, T" uniqKey="Kampfrath T">T Kampfrath</name></author><author><name sortKey="Maiseyeu, A" uniqKey="Maiseyeu A">A Maiseyeu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ying, Z" uniqKey="Ying Z">Z Ying</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shah, Z" uniqKey="Shah Z">Z Shah</name></author><author><name sortKey="Deiuliis, Ja" uniqKey="Deiuliis J">JA Deiuliis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Xu, X" uniqKey="Xu X">X Xu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brunekreef, B" uniqKey="Brunekreef B">B Brunekreef</name></author><author><name sortKey="Forsberg, B" uniqKey="Forsberg B">B Forsberg</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ostro, Bd" uniqKey="Ostro B">BD Ostro</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hurley, S" uniqKey="Hurley S">S Hurley</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lipsett, Mj" uniqKey="Lipsett M">MJ Lipsett</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Peng, Rd" uniqKey="Peng R">RD Peng</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chang, Hh" uniqKey="Chang H">HH Chang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bell, Ml" uniqKey="Bell M">ML Bell</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mcdermott, A" uniqKey="Mcdermott A">A McDermott</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zeger, Sl" uniqKey="Zeger S">SL Zeger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Samet, Jm" uniqKey="Samet J">JM Samet</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Liao, D" uniqKey="Liao D">D Liao</name></author><author><name sortKey="Creason, J" uniqKey="Creason J">J Creason</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shy, C" uniqKey="Shy C">C Shy</name></author><author><name sortKey="Williams, R" uniqKey="Williams R">R Williams</name></author><author><name sortKey="Watts, R" uniqKey="Watts R">R Watts</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zweidinger, R" uniqKey="Zweidinger R">R Zweidinger</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Lipsett, Mj" uniqKey="Lipsett M">MJ Lipsett</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tsai, Fc" uniqKey="Tsai F">FC Tsai</name></author><author><name sortKey="Roger, L" uniqKey="Roger L">L Roger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Woo, M" uniqKey="Woo M">M Woo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ostro, Bd" uniqKey="Ostro B">BD Ostro</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Srebot, V" uniqKey="Srebot V">V Srebot</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gianicolo, Ea" uniqKey="Gianicolo E">EA Gianicolo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rainaldi, G" uniqKey="Rainaldi G">G Rainaldi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Trivella, Mg" uniqKey="Trivella M">MG Trivella</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sicari, R" uniqKey="Sicari R">R Sicari</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brook, Rd" uniqKey="Brook R">RD Brook</name></author><author><name sortKey="Franklin, B" uniqKey="Franklin B">B Franklin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cascio, W" uniqKey="Cascio W">W Cascio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hong, Y" uniqKey="Hong Y">Y Hong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Howard, G" uniqKey="Howard G">G Howard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lipsett, M" uniqKey="Lipsett M">M Lipsett</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ponka, A" uniqKey="Ponka A">A Ponka</name></author><author><name sortKey="Virtanen, M" uniqKey="Virtanen M">M Virtanen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, J" uniqKey="Schwartz J">J Schwartz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Prescott, Gj" uniqKey="Prescott G">GJ Prescott</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cohen, Gr" uniqKey="Cohen G">GR Cohen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Elton, Ra" uniqKey="Elton R">RA Elton</name></author><author><name sortKey="Fowkes, Fg" uniqKey="Fowkes F">FG Fowkes</name></author><author><name sortKey="Agius, Rm" uniqKey="Agius R">RM Agius</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Holguin, F" uniqKey="Holguin F">F Holguín</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tellez Rojo, Mm" uniqKey="Tellez Rojo M">MM Téllez-Rojo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hernandez, M" uniqKey="Hernandez M">M Hernández</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cortez, M" uniqKey="Cortez M">M Cortez</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chow, Jc" uniqKey="Chow J">JC Chow</name></author><author><name sortKey="Watson, Jg" uniqKey="Watson J">JG Watson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bocci, V" uniqKey="Bocci V">V Bocci</name></author><author><name sortKey="Paulesu, L" uniqKey="Paulesu L">L Paulesu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Larini, A" uniqKey="Larini A">A Larini</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bocci, V" uniqKey="Bocci V">V Bocci</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ye, F" uniqKey="Ye F">F Ye</name></author><author><name sortKey="Piver, Wt" uniqKey="Piver W">WT Piver</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ando, M" uniqKey="Ando M">M Ando</name></author><author><name sortKey="Portier, Cj" uniqKey="Portier C">CJ Portier</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zeghnoun, A" uniqKey="Zeghnoun A">A Zeghnoun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Czernichow, P" uniqKey="Czernichow P">P Czernichow</name></author><author><name sortKey="Beaudeau, P" uniqKey="Beaudeau P">P Beaudeau</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hautemaniere, A" uniqKey="Hautemaniere A">A Hautemanière</name></author><author><name sortKey="Froment, L" uniqKey="Froment L">L Froment</name></author><author><name sortKey="Le Tertre, A" uniqKey="Le Tertre A">A Le Tertre</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gold, Dr" uniqKey="Gold D">DR Gold</name></author><author><name sortKey="Litonjua, A" uniqKey="Litonjua A">A Litonjua</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, J" uniqKey="Schwartz J">J Schwartz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lovett, E" uniqKey="Lovett E">E Lovett</name></author><author><name sortKey="Larson, A" uniqKey="Larson A">A Larson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nearing, B" uniqKey="Nearing B">B Nearing</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kodavanti, Up" uniqKey="Kodavanti U">UP Kodavanti</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schladweiler, Mc" uniqKey="Schladweiler M">MC Schladweiler</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ledbetter, Ad" uniqKey="Ledbetter A">AD Ledbetter</name></author><author><name sortKey="Watkinson, Wp" uniqKey="Watkinson W">WP Watkinson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Campen, Mj" uniqKey="Campen M">MJ Campen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Winsett, Dw" uniqKey="Winsett D">DW Winsett</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ye, F" uniqKey="Ye F">F Ye</name></author><author><name sortKey="Piver, Wt" uniqKey="Piver W">WT Piver</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ando, M" uniqKey="Ando M">M Ando</name></author><author><name sortKey="Portier, Cj" uniqKey="Portier C">CJ Portier</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mar, Tf" uniqKey="Mar T">TF Mar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Norris, Ga" uniqKey="Norris G">GA Norris</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koenig, Jq" uniqKey="Koenig J">JQ Koenig</name></author><author><name sortKey="Larson, Tv" uniqKey="Larson T">TV Larson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Wong, Tw" uniqKey="Wong T">TW Wong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lau, Ts" uniqKey="Lau T">TS Lau</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yu, Ts" uniqKey="Yu T">TS Yu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Neller, A" uniqKey="Neller A">A Neller</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wong, Sl" uniqKey="Wong S">SL Wong</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tam, W" uniqKey="Tam W">W Tam</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Takano, H" uniqKey="Takano H">H Takano</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yanagisawa, R" uniqKey="Yanagisawa R">R Yanagisawa</name></author><author><name sortKey="Inoue, K" uniqKey="Inoue K">K Inoue</name></author><author><name sortKey="Shimada, A" uniqKey="Shimada A">A Shimada</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ichinose, T" uniqKey="Ichinose T">T Ichinose</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sadakane, K" uniqKey="Sadakane K">K Sadakane</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Leaderer, Bp" uniqKey="Leaderer B">BP Leaderer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sunyer, J" uniqKey="Sunyer J">J Sunyer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ballester, F" uniqKey="Ballester F">F Ballester</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tertre, Al" uniqKey="Tertre A">AL Tertre</name></author><author><name sortKey="Atkinson, R" uniqKey="Atkinson R">R Atkinson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ayres, Jg" uniqKey="Ayres J">JG Ayres</name></author><author><name sortKey="Forastiere, F" uniqKey="Forastiere F">F Forastiere</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Junker, R" uniqKey="Junker R">R Junker</name></author><author><name sortKey="Heinrich, J" uniqKey="Heinrich J">J Heinrich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ulbrich, H" uniqKey="Ulbrich H">H Ulbrich</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schulte, H" uniqKey="Schulte H">H Schulte</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schonfeld, R" uniqKey="Schonfeld R">R Schönfeld</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kohler, E" uniqKey="Kohler E">E Köhler</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Peters, A" uniqKey="Peters A">A Peters</name></author><author><name sortKey="Doring, A" uniqKey="Doring A">A Döring</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wichmann, He" uniqKey="Wichmann H">HE Wichmann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koenig, W" uniqKey="Koenig W">W Koenig</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Chen, Ss" uniqKey="Chen S">SS Chen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tang, Cs" uniqKey="Tang C">CS Tang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jin, Hf" uniqKey="Jin H">HF Jin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Du, Jb" uniqKey="Du J">JB DU</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Dulskiene, V" uniqKey="Dulskiene V">V Dulskiene</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Glenn, Bs" uniqKey="Glenn B">BS Glenn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stewart, Wf" uniqKey="Stewart W">WF Stewart</name></author><author><name sortKey="Links, Jm" uniqKey="Links J">JM Links</name></author><author><name sortKey="Todd, Ac" uniqKey="Todd A">AC Todd</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, Bs" uniqKey="Schwartz B">BS Schwartz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Weiss, St" uniqKey="Weiss S">ST Weiss</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mu Oz, A" uniqKey="Mu Oz A">A Muñoz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stein, A" uniqKey="Stein A">A Stein</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sparrow, D" uniqKey="Sparrow D">D Sparrow</name></author><author><name sortKey="Speizer, Fe" uniqKey="Speizer F">FE Speizer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Carmignani, M" uniqKey="Carmignani M">M Carmignani</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boscolo, P" uniqKey="Boscolo P">P Boscolo</name></author><author><name sortKey="Poma, A" uniqKey="Poma A">A Poma</name></author><author><name sortKey="Volpe, Ar" uniqKey="Volpe A">AR Volpe</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rodriguez Iturbe, B" uniqKey="Rodriguez Iturbe B">B Rodríguez-Iturbe</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sindhu, Rk" uniqKey="Sindhu R">RK Sindhu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Quiroz, Y" uniqKey="Quiroz Y">Y Quiroz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vaziri, Nd" uniqKey="Vaziri N">ND Vaziri</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ding, Y" uniqKey="Ding Y">Y Ding</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vaziri, Nd" uniqKey="Vaziri N">ND Vaziri</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gonick, Hc" uniqKey="Gonick H">HC Gonick</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Farmand, F" uniqKey="Farmand F">F Farmand</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ehdaie, A" uniqKey="Ehdaie A">A Ehdaie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Roberts, Ck" uniqKey="Roberts C">CK Roberts</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sindhu, Rk" uniqKey="Sindhu R">RK Sindhu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Revis, Nw" uniqKey="Revis N">NW Revis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zinsmeister, Ar" uniqKey="Zinsmeister A">AR Zinsmeister</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bull, R" uniqKey="Bull R">R Bull</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, J" uniqKey="Schwartz J">J Schwartz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Linn, R" uniqKey="Linn R">R Linn</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Greiner, T" uniqKey="Greiner T">T Greiner</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ayres, Sm" uniqKey="Ayres S">SM Ayres</name></author><author><name sortKey="Giannelli, S" uniqKey="Giannelli S">S Giannelli</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mueller, H" uniqKey="Mueller H">H Mueller</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Powell, Jt" uniqKey="Powell J">JT Powell</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pryor, Wa" uniqKey="Pryor W">WA Pryor</name></author><author><name sortKey="Stone, K" uniqKey="Stone K">K Stone</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Reddy, A" uniqKey="Reddy A">A Reddy</name></author><author><name sortKey="Williams, R" uniqKey="Williams R">R Williams</name></author><author><name sortKey="Johansson, T" uniqKey="Johansson T">T Johansson</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jin, Y" uniqKey="Jin Y">Y Jin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zhou, Z" uniqKey="Zhou Z">Z Zhou</name></author><author><name sortKey="He, G" uniqKey="He G">G He</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wei, H" uniqKey="Wei H">H Wei</name></author><author><name sortKey="Liu, J" uniqKey="Liu J">J Liu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Liu, F" uniqKey="Liu F">F Liu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Viegi, G" uniqKey="Viegi G">G Viegi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simoni, M" uniqKey="Simoni M">M Simoni</name></author><author><name sortKey="Scognamiglio, A" uniqKey="Scognamiglio A">A Scognamiglio</name></author><author><name sortKey="Baldacci, S" uniqKey="Baldacci S">S Baldacci</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pistelli, F" uniqKey="Pistelli F">F Pistelli</name></author><author><name sortKey="Carrozzi, L" uniqKey="Carrozzi L">L Carrozzi</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zhang, Jj" uniqKey="Zhang J">JJ Zhang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Kr" uniqKey="Smith K">KR Smith</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Brook, Rd" uniqKey="Brook R">RD Brook</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rajagopalan, S" uniqKey="Rajagopalan S">S Rajagopalan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pope, Ca" uniqKey="Pope C">CA Pope</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brook, Jr" uniqKey="Brook J">JR Brook</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bhatnagar, A" uniqKey="Bhatnagar A">A Bhatnagar</name></author><author><name sortKey="Diez Roux, Av" uniqKey="Diez Roux A">AV Diez-Roux</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Moran, A" uniqKey="Moran A">A Moran</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gu, D" uniqKey="Gu D">D Gu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zhao, D" uniqKey="Zhao D">D Zhao</name></author><author><name sortKey="Coxson, P" uniqKey="Coxson P">P Coxson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wang, Yc" uniqKey="Wang Y">YC Wang</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chen, Cs" uniqKey="Chen C">CS Chen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Mccracken, Jp" uniqKey="Mccracken J">JP McCracken</name></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Kr" uniqKey="Smith K">KR Smith</name></author><author><name sortKey="Diaz, A" uniqKey="Diaz A">A Diaz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mittleman, Ma" uniqKey="Mittleman M">MA Mittleman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schwartz, J" uniqKey="Schwartz J">J Schwartz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kjeldsen, K" uniqKey="Kjeldsen K">K Kjeldsen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Thomsen, Hk" uniqKey="Thomsen H">HK Thomsen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Astrup, P" uniqKey="Astrup P">P Astrup</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zevin, S" uniqKey="Zevin S">S Zevin</name></author><author><name sortKey="Saunders, S" uniqKey="Saunders S">S Saunders</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gourlay, Sg" uniqKey="Gourlay S">SG Gourlay</name></author><author><name sortKey="Jacob, P" uniqKey="Jacob P">P Jacob</name></author><author><name sortKey="Benowitz, Nl" uniqKey="Benowitz N">NL Benowitz</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Penn, A" uniqKey="Penn A">A Penn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Currie, J" uniqKey="Currie J">J Currie</name></author><author><name sortKey="Snyder, C" uniqKey="Snyder C">C Snyder</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Penn, A" uniqKey="Penn A">A Penn</name></author><author><name sortKey="Snyder, C" uniqKey="Snyder C">C Snyder</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Benowitz, Nl" uniqKey="Benowitz N">NL Benowitz</name></author><author><name sortKey="Gourlay, Sg" uniqKey="Gourlay S">SG Gourlay</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Naeher, Lp" uniqKey="Naeher L">LP Naeher</name></author><author><name sortKey="Brauer, M" uniqKey="Brauer M">M Brauer</name></author><author><name sortKey="Lipsett, M" uniqKey="Lipsett M">M Lipsett</name></author><author><name sortKey="Zelikoff, Jt" uniqKey="Zelikoff J">JT Zelikoff</name></author><author><name sortKey="Simpson, Cd" uniqKey="Simpson C">CD Simpson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Koenig, Jq" uniqKey="Koenig J">JQ Koenig</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bailis, R" uniqKey="Bailis R">R Bailis</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ezzati, M" uniqKey="Ezzati M">M Ezzati</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kammen, Dm" uniqKey="Kammen D">DM Kammen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ostro, B" uniqKey="Ostro B">B Ostro</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Pan, Ch" uniqKey="Pan C">CH Pan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Chan, Cc" uniqKey="Chan C">CC Chan</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wu, Ky" uniqKey="Wu K">KY Wu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Ray, Mr" uniqKey="Ray M">MR Ray</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mukherjee, S" uniqKey="Mukherjee S">S Mukherjee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Roychoudhury, S" uniqKey="Roychoudhury S">S Roychoudhury</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bhattacharya, P" uniqKey="Bhattacharya P">P Bhattacharya</name></author><author><name sortKey="Banerjee, M" uniqKey="Banerjee M">M Banerjee</name></author><author><name sortKey="Siddique, S" uniqKey="Siddique S">S Siddique</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Entman, Ml" uniqKey="Entman M">ML Entman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ballantyne, Cm" uniqKey="Ballantyne C">CM Ballantyne</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Michelson, Ad" uniqKey="Michelson A">AD Michelson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Barnard, Mr" uniqKey="Barnard M">MR Barnard</name></author><author><name sortKey="Krueger, La" uniqKey="Krueger L">LA Krueger</name></author><author><name sortKey="Valeri, Cr" uniqKey="Valeri C">CR Valeri</name></author><author><name sortKey="Furman, Mi" uniqKey="Furman M">MI Furman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Konstantopoulos, K" uniqKey="Konstantopoulos K">K Konstantopoulos</name></author><author><name sortKey="Grotta, Jc" uniqKey="Grotta J">JC Grotta</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sills, C" uniqKey="Sills C">C Sills</name></author><author><name sortKey="Wu, Kk" uniqKey="Wu K">KK Wu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hellums, Jd" uniqKey="Hellums J">JD Hellums</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Beauchamp, Ro" uniqKey="Beauchamp R">RO Beauchamp</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bus, Js" uniqKey="Bus J">JS Bus</name></author><author><name sortKey="Popp, Ja" uniqKey="Popp J">JA Popp</name></author><author><name sortKey="Boreiko, C J" uniqKey="Boreiko C">C J Boreiko</name></author><author><name sortKey="Golberg, L" uniqKey="Golberg L">L Golberg</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Zanettini, R" uniqKey="Zanettini R">R Zanettini</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kotseva, K" uniqKey="Kotseva K">K Kotseva</name></author><author><name sortKey="Agostini, O" uniqKey="Agostini O">O Agostini</name></author><author><name sortKey="Cesana, G" uniqKey="Cesana G">G Cesana</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Oliver, Lc" uniqKey="Oliver L">LC Oliver</name></author><author><name sortKey="Weber, Rp" uniqKey="Weber R">RP Weber</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Vanhoorne, M" uniqKey="Vanhoorne M">M Vanhoorne</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Bacquer, D" uniqKey="De Bacquer D">D De Bacquer</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Backer, G" uniqKey="De Backer G">G De Backer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Drexler, H" uniqKey="Drexler H">H Drexler</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ulm, K" uniqKey="Ulm K">K Ulm</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hubmann, M" uniqKey="Hubmann M">M Hubmann</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hardt, R" uniqKey="Hardt R">R Hardt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Goen, T" uniqKey="Goen T">T Goen</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mondorf, W" uniqKey="Mondorf W">W Mondorf</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Omae, K" uniqKey="Omae K">K Omae</name></author><author><name sortKey="Takebayashi, T" uniqKey="Takebayashi T">T Takebayashi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nomiyama, T" uniqKey="Nomiyama T">T Nomiyama</name></author><author><name sortKey="Ishizuka, C" uniqKey="Ishizuka C">C Ishizuka</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nakashima, H" uniqKey="Nakashima H">H Nakashima</name></author><author><name sortKey="Uemura, T" uniqKey="Uemura T">T Uemura</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kotseva, Kp" uniqKey="Kotseva K">KP Kotseva</name></author><author><name sortKey="De Bacquer, D" uniqKey="De Bacquer D">D De Bacquer</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="review-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">N Am J Med Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">N Am J Med Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">NAJMS</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>North American Journal of Medical Sciences</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2250-1541</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1947-2714</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Medknow Publications & Media Pvt Ltd</publisher-name><publisher-loc>India</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24083218</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3784920</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">NAJMS-5-445</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4103/1947-2714.117290</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>The Emerging Role of Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution in Cardiovascular Disease</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Uzoigwe</surname><given-names>Jacinta C.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Prum</surname><given-names>Thavaleak</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bresnahan</surname><given-names>Eric</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Garelnabi</surname><given-names>Mahdi</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff1">Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA</aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1"><bold>Address for correspondence:</bold> Prof. Mahdi Garelnabi, Department of Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, School of Health and Environment, University of Massachusetts Lowell, 3 Solomont Way, Lowell, MA 01854, Suite 4, Lowell, MA 01854, USA. E-mail: <email xlink:href="mahdi_garelnabi@uml.edu">mahdi_garelnabi@uml.edu</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>8</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><volume>5</volume><issue>8</issue><fpage>445</fpage><lpage>453</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright: © North American Journal of Medical Sciences</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2013</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Outdoor and indoor air pollution poses a significant cardiovascular risk, and has been associated with atherosclerosis, the main underlying pathology in many cardiovascular diseases. Although, it is well known that exposure to air pollution causes pulmonary disease, recent studies have shown that cardiovascular health consequences of air pollution generally equal or exceed those due to pulmonary diseases. The objective of this article is to evaluate the current evidence on the emerging role of environmental air pollutions in cardiovascular disease, with specific focus on the types of air pollutants and mechanisms of air pollution-induced cardiotoxicity. Published literature on pollution was systematically reviewed and cited in this article. It is hoped that this review will provide a better understanding of the harmful cardiovascular effects induced by air pollution exposure. This will help to bring a better understanding on the possible preventive health measures and will also serve regulatory agencies and researchers. In addition, elucidating the biological mechanisms underlying the link between air pollution and cardiovascular disease is an essential target in developing novel pharmacological strategies aimed at decreasing adverse effects of air pollution on cardiovascular system.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Air pollution</kwd><kwd>Atherosclerosis</kwd><kwd>Cardiovascular diseases</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="sec1-1"><title>Introduction</title><p>Air pollution exposure is a major problem worldwide and has been linked to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Outdoor and indoor air pollution, which consists of a complex mixture of particulate matter (PM), gases (e.g., carbon monoxide [CO], ozone [O<sub>3</sub>], nitrogen dioxide [NO<sub>2</sub>], sulfur dioxide [SO<sub>2</sub>]), is increasingly recognized as an important determinant of CVDs.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref3">3</xref>] PM is described as a mixture of suspended particles that vary in chemical composition and size.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>] There is increasing evidence that exposure to air pollution is not only linked to pulmonary diseases, but also mainly to CVDs.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref3">3</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref4">4</xref>]</p><p>Many conditions predispose to death from CVDs, particularly coronary artery disease (CAD), and include hypercholesterolemia,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref5">5</xref>] hypertension,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref6">6</xref>] a thrombotic tendency,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref7">7</xref>] the postmenopausal state,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref8">8</xref>] and ventricular arrhythmias.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref9">9</xref>] It is reported that sudden death is usually the first and only manifestation in about 20% of patients who present with CAD[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref10">10</xref>] and about 75% of patients with myocardial infarction die outside the hospital.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref11">11</xref>] This suggests that treatment is not available for many patients, and the focus should be to prevent the development and progression of CVDs.</p><p>Previous research have shown that gaseous pollutants (e.g., CO, NO<sub>2</sub>) and toxic substances present in fine PM (e.g., black carbon, primary and secondary aerosols, metals) can cross epithelium of airway following inhalation, reaching the vasculature, and induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref12">12</xref>] The effects produced by these air pollutants might subsequently lead to hypertensive responses and changes in autonomic cardiac control.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref13">13</xref>]</p><p>The objective of this article is to consider a number of different air pollutants found either outdoor or indoor, such as gaseous pollutants and PM, associated with detrimental cardiovascular effects. Specifically, this study would review the current information on the effects of pollution exposure on cardiovascular system and the different mechanisms of air pollution-induced cardiotoxicity. It is expected that this review would provide a better understanding of the harmful cardiovascular effect induced by air pollution exposure, as well as their mechanisms of actions, and such information would be of use to researchers, healthcare providers and regulatory agencies, and could also be used by policy makers to determine acceptable levels of air pollution and to design ways to minimize the harmful cardiovascular effects of air pollutants on the body. In addition, elucidation of the physiological and molecular mechanisms of air pollution-induced cardiotoxicity might become an essential target in developing the novel pharmacological strategies aimed at decreasing the adverse effects of air pollution on cardiovascular system.</p></sec><sec id="sec1-2"><title>Outdoor/Indoor Air Pollutants and Associated Cardiovascular Effects</title><p>Certain environmental air pollutants are of special interest since they are associated with increased morbidity, hospitalization,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref14">14</xref>] and mortality due to CVD.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref3">3</xref>] In the United States, the six commonly found air pollutants are particle pollution (often referred to as PM), ground-level O<sub>3</sub>, CO, SO<sub>2</sub>, NO<sub>2</sub>, and lead.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>] Worldwide, the air pollutants of concern include PM (“fine particles” [PM<sub>2.5</sub>> 2.5 μm], and “coarse particles” [PM<sub>10 to 2.5</sub>]), ground-level O<sub>3</sub>, CO, SO<sub>2</sub>, NO<sub>2</sub>, lead, cigarette smoke, and carbon disulfide (CS<sub>2</sub>).</p></sec><sec id="sec1-3"><title>Particulate Matter Air Pollution</title><p>PM is a mixture of particles that can adversely affect human health and includes dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and liquid droplets directly emitted into the air by sources such as factories, power plants, cars, construction activity, fires, and natural windblown dust. It is reported that the size of PM is directly linked to their potential for causing health-related problems. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is mainly concerned about particles that are 10 μm in diameter or smaller because those are the particles that generally pass through the throat and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can cause harmful effects on the lungs and heart. EPA groups particle pollution into two categories: fine PM and coarse PM.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>]</p><sec id="sec2-1"><title>Fine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>)</title><sec id="sec3-1"><title>Sources of PM<sub>2.5</sub></title><p>There are both outdoor and indoor sources of fine particulates (PM with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm [PM<sub>2.5</sub>]). Particles in the PM<sub>2.5</sub> size range are commonly found in smoke and haze and are of particular health concern since they are able to travel deeply into the respiratory tract, reaching the lungs and can also affect the heart. Throughout the world, the major sources of fine particles primarily are from human combustion of fossil fuels from different outdoor activities, such as from car, truck, bus, and off-road vehicle (e.g., construction equipment, snowmobile, locomotive) exhausts, other operations that involve the burning of fuels such as wood, heating oil, or coal, as well as natural sources such as forest and grass fires. PM<sub>2.5</sub> is also produced by common indoor activities, and such indoor sources of fine particles include tobacco smoke, cooking (e.g., frying, sautéing, and broiling), burning candles or oil lamps, and operating fireplaces and fuel-burning space heaters (e.g., kerosene heaters). Fine particles can also be emitted from the reaction of gases or droplets in the atmosphere from sources such as power generation plants.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec3-2"><title>Cardiovascular effects of PM<sub>2.5</sub></title><p>Particles in the PM<sub>2.5</sub> size range are of particular health concern because they can reach the smaller airways and alveoli.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>] Scientific studies have linked increases in daily PM<sub>2.5</sub> exposure with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Exposure to ambient air-borne PM of > 2.5 μm (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) is associated with increased incidences of specific acute CVDs, such as myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, heart failure, cardiac arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref15">15</xref>] as well as peripheral arterial and venous diseases.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref16">16</xref>] It is reported that constituents of ambient particulates from traffic emissions were more toxic than those from other sources.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref17">17</xref>] Multiple studies have found associations between decreased heart rate variability (HRV) and elevated blood pressure and exposure to fine particulates (PM<sub>2.5</sub>).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref18">18</xref>] It is reported that short-term exposure to traffic-derived fine particulate air pollution is associated with acute cardiovascular events.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref19">19</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec3-3"><title>Mechanism of action of PM<sub>2.5</sub> in cardiovascular disease</title><p>Several mechanisms have been reported for PM air pollution-associated cardiovascular effects, including inducing systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, increased blood coagulability, and autonomic and vascular imbalance.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref20">20</xref>] Kampfrath et al.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref20">20</xref>] investigated the molecular mechanisms by which PM<sub>2.5</sub> mediates inflammatory responses in a mouse model of chronic exposure. Their findings suggest that PM<sub>2.5</sub> triggers an increase in oxidized phospholipids in lungs that then mediates a systemic cellular inflammatory response through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NADPH oxidase-dependent mechanisms.</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec2-2"><title>Coarse particulate matter (PM<sub>10-2.5</sub>)</title><sec id="sec3-4"><title>Sources of PM<sub>10-2.5</sub></title><p>In contrast to fine particles which typically originate from combustion and photo-chemical processes, coarse particles [PM with aerodynamic diameter between 2.5 and 10 μm (PM<sub>10-2.5</sub>)] are mainly derived from processes such as mechanical grinding in industry and transportation, windblown dust, and agricultural activities; PM deposit preferentially in the upper and larger airways.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec3-5"><title>Cardiovascular effects of PM<sub>10-2.5</sub></title><p>The findings from research on the health effects of coarse particles (PM<sub>10-2.5</sub>) have been mixed.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref21">21</xref>] Previous research has found associations between daily PM<sub>10</sub> concentrations and cardiovascular mortality in the Coachella Valley, a desert resort and retirement area east of Los Angeles, California.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref22">22</xref>] Another study[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref23">23</xref>] concluded that after adjustment for PM<sub>2.5</sub>, there were no statistically significant associations between coarse particulates and hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.</p></sec><sec id="sec3-6"><title>Mechanism of action of PM<sub>10-2.5</sub> in cardiovascular disease</title><p>One of the plausible mechanisms providing explanations for associations between exposure to airborne PM and increased risks of cardiovascular mortality is the alterations in cardiac autonomic control, assessed by changes in HRV. The relationship between. PM<sub>10-2.5</sub> and CVD is still controversial. Previous studies[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref24">24</xref>] found no relationship between PM<sub>10-2.5</sub> and changes in HRV; however, it was reported that those investigations took place in urban areas with low PM<sub>10-2.5</sub> levels. In a separate study, Lipsett et al.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref25">25</xref>] examined the impact of PM on HRV in an area where PM<sub>10-2.5</sub> predominates, and found that elevated levels of ambient coarse particles (PM<sub>10-2.5</sub>) may adversely affect HRV in older subjects with CAD.</p></sec></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-4"><title>Ground-Level Ozone Pollution (or Smog)</title><sec id="sec2-3"><title>Sources of ground-level ozone</title><p>O<sub>3</sub> is described as a colorless gas molecule consisting of three atoms of oxygen, highly reactive and with a high oxidizing power. Where O<sub>3</sub> forms determines whether it is beneficial or harmful to health. In nature, O<sub>3</sub> forms at high altitude layers, that is, the -so-called “ozonosphere” (15-60 km) forming a protective layer and is regarded as good O<sub>3</sub>. This protective layer shields from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Unfortunately, human-created chemicals are destroying this beneficial protective layer of O<sub>3</sub>. In contrast to good O<sub>3</sub> layer, O<sub>3</sub> near ground level is a harmful pollutant and is called bad O<sub>3</sub>. In lower atmosphere layers known as troposphere (>15 km high from the ground), O<sub>3</sub> formation is induced, especially during the summer when ultraviolet light in sun radiations triggers a chemical reaction with precursor chemical pollutants emitted by motor vehicles, thermoelectric plants, and industrial sources. These precursor pollutants are composed of nitro compounds like NO<sub>2</sub> and volatile organic hydrocarbons (VOC) like terpenes.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref26">26</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-4"><title>Cardiovascular effects of ground-level ozone</title><p>Ground-level O<sub>3</sub>, a major component of urban smog, is one of six air pollutants that the United States EPA have determined as likely to cause human health problems. Breathing ground-level O<sub>3</sub> can result in a number of harmful health effects. Many epidemiologic studies have shown that there is an association between PM and O<sub>3</sub> and the increased incidence of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref27">27</xref>] Data on the cardiovascular effects of ground-level O<sub>3</sub> is mixed. Although a positive association between O<sub>3</sub> and ischemic heart disease was found in Helsinki, Finland,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref28">28</xref>] no associations were found in studies conducted in Tucson, Arizona,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref29">29</xref>] London, UK,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref30">30</xref>] and Edinburgh, Scotland.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref31">31</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-5"><title>Mechanism of action of ground-level ozone in cardiovascular disease</title><p>O<sub>3</sub> has a high oxidizing power, and reacts with biomolecules to form ozonides and free radicals. In the body, this reaction triggers an inflammatory response that conveys increased systemic oxidative stress, which has both pulmonary and cardiovascular effects. According to Srebot et al.,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref26">26</xref>] there is a possibility that pulmonary oxidant stress mediated by PM and/or O<sub>3</sub> exposure can result in downstream perturbations in the cardiovasculature, as the pulmonary and cardiovascular systems are intricately associated. Several mechanisms of cardiotoxicity have been observed and associated to ground-level O<sub>3</sub> exposure including modification of endothelial function and vascular vasomotricity, and alterations in autonomic control of cardiac frequency, activation of systemic inflammatory response mediated by cytokines and, increase of oxidative stress.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref32">32</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref33">33</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref34">34</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref35">35</xref>] In a randomized, double-blind, crossover chamber study by Brook et al.,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref27">27</xref>] it was found that O<sub>3</sub> can influence macrovascular diameter and tone. These researchers showed that inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and O<sub>3</sub> causes acute arterial vasoconstriction in healthy adults.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref27">27</xref>] In one study conducted in the nursing home in Mexico, it was found that ambient levels of PM<sub>2.5</sub> and O<sub>3</sub> can reduce the high-frequency component of HRV and that patients with underlying arterial hypertension are particularly susceptible to this effect.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref31">31</xref>] In another study, Gold et al.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref36">36</xref>] suggested that both particulate and O<sub>3</sub> pollution may lead to short-term autonomic imbalance, reflected by changes in heart rate and HRV. It is reported that O<sub>3</sub> exposure mediates an inflammation response and increased oxidative stress in the cardiovascular system. <italic>In vitro</italic> studies[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref33">33</xref>] using peripheral human blood mononuclear cells have shown that a significant relationship exists between O<sub>3</sub> and increased lipid peroxidation and protein thiol group content. Studies using an animal model found that O<sub>3</sub> exposure causes increased systemic oxidative stress.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref37">37</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-5"><title>Nitrogen Dioxide Air Pollution</title><sec id="sec2-6"><title>Sources of nitrogen dioxide</title><p>NO<sub>2</sub>, a suffocating, brownish gas, is predominantly derived from the oxidation of NO, the major outdoor source of which is combustion emissions, mainly from motor vehicles and stationary combustion sources such as electric utility and industrial boilers. NO<sub>2</sub> exposure indoors is from sources such as unvented combustion appliances.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1">1</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-7"><title>Cardiovascular effects of nitrogen dioxide</title><p>Harmful health effects from NO<sub>2</sub> may potentially result from NO<sub>2</sub> itself or its reaction products such as O<sub>3</sub>. NO<sub>2</sub>, an important air pollutant in the developed countries is positively associated with cardiovascular morbidity, hospitalization, and mortality. Research has shown that the concentration of NO<sub>2</sub> is associated with daily hospital emergency transports for ischemic heart diseases such as angina pectoris and myocardial infarction,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref38">38</xref>] as well as for subsequent cardiac insufficiency and arrhythmia. Previous studies have shown that an interquartile range increase in NO<sub>2</sub> is associated with an increase of 6.1% of cardiovascular mortality.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref39">39</xref>] It is reported that the cardiovascular effects of NO<sub>2</sub> are mainly observed in patients with CVDs aged 65 years or older who have high risks of atherogenesis.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref40">40</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-8"><title>Mechanism of action of nitrogen dioxide in cardiovascular disease</title><p>Takano et al. demonstrated that daily exposure to NO<sub>2</sub> air pollution near ambient levels (0.16 ppm) enhances atherogenic lipid metabolisms primarily in the otsuka long-evans tokushima fatty (OLETF) rats, but less in the long-evans tokushima otsuka (LETO) rats. These researchers concluded that NO<sub>2</sub> air pollution near ambient levels is an atherogenic risk primarily in obese subjects.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref41">41</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-6"><title>Sulfur Dioxide Air Pollution</title><sec id="sec2-9"><title>Sources of sulfur dioxide air pollution</title><p>SO<sub>2</sub> is considered a toxic gas in air pollution and is described as a highly irritating, colorless, soluble gas with a pungent odor and taste. SO<sub>2</sub> is generally found at considerably lower concentrations in indoors compared with outdoor. Indoor sources of SO<sub>2</sub> include the use of kerosene space heaters.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref42">42</xref>] Outdoor sources of SO<sub>2</sub> include burning of fossil fuels (coal and oil), combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, especially in power plants and diesel engines, and smelting of mineral ores (aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and iron) that contain sulfur. Oxidation of SO<sub>2</sub> results in formation of sulfur trioxide, which, as a result of its strong affinity for water, can be rapidly hydrated to form sulfuric acid.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref43">43</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-10"><title>Cardiovascular effects of sulfur dioxide air pollution</title><p>Sunyer et al.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref44">44</xref>] reported the association of daily SO<sub>2</sub> air pollution levels with hospital admissions for CVDs in Europe. Their results suggest that SO<sub>2</sub> pollution may play an independent role in triggering ischemic cardiac events.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref44">44</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-11"><title>Mechanism of action of sulfur dioxide in cardiovascular disease</title><p>Blood viscosity has been linked to severity of CVD[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref45">45</xref>] and has been found to increase in association with increased levels of ambient total suspended particles and SO<sub>2</sub>.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref46">46</xref>] Although SO<sub>2</sub> is considered to be toxic and detrimental to human health, recent studies suggest that SO<sub>2</sub> might be an endogenous gaseous signaling molecule involved in the regulation of cardiovascular functions.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref47">47</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-7"><title>Lead Air Pollution</title><sec id="sec2-12"><title>Sources of lead air pollution</title><p>Lead enters the body when a person inhales particles of lead that are suspended in the air. Lead is a naturally occurring element and it does not go away over time, unlike most pollutants. It is reported that the United States eliminated lead from gasoline and paints, a change that significantly reduced lead in air pollution in the United States, cutting it by 98% by 2002.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref48">48</xref>] However, most of the lead that entered the air in the past remains in the environment, especially in the soil near major roadways.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref49">49</xref>] A major indoor source of lead is old paint found in homes built before 1978.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref50">50</xref>] Additionally, lead-contaminated soil and dust tracked indoors from outside also contribute to indoor lead pollution.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref48">48</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-13"><title>Cardiovascular effects of lead air pollution</title><p>The cardiovascular effects of lead exposure includes elevation of blood pressure and hypertension[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref51">51</xref>] Other impacts of lead exposure on CVD include an increased incidence of clinical cardiovascular end points such as coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, and peripheral arterial disease,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref52">52</xref>] as well as other cardiovascular function abnormalities including left ventricular hypertrophy and alterations in cardiac rhythm.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref53">53</xref>] Studies have shown that the effects of lead poisoning may continue after the source of exposure has been eliminated.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref53">53</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-14"><title>Mechanism of action of lead air pollution in cardiovascular disease</title><p>It is reported that chronic exposure to low lead levels results in arterial hypertension that persists long after the cessation of lead exposure.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref54">54</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref55">55</xref>] The potential mechanisms explaining a link between cardiovascular effect and environmental lead exposure include enhanced oxidative stress,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref56">56</xref>] stimulation of the renin-angiotensin system,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref57">57</xref>] and down-regulation of nitric oxide[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref58">58</xref>] and soluble guanylate cyclase.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref59">59</xref>] These biological mechanisms could lead to increased vascular tone and peripheral vascular resistance.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref54">54</xref>] Research has shown that chronic lead exposure promotes atherosclerosis in experimental animals.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref60">60</xref>] Among US adults, increased blood lead levels were associated with an increased prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref61">61</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-8"><title>Carbon Monoxide Air Pollution</title><sec id="sec2-15"><title>Sources of carbon monoxide pollution</title><p>CO is a colorless, tasteless, odorless, and highly toxic gas produced by incomplete burning of hydrocarbons in fuels.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref62">62</xref>] Poisoning with CO is an important cause of accidental and intentional injury throughout the world. There are many indoor sources of CO including poorly installed and maintained heating systems, charcoal grills and hibachi pots that are used indoors, gas kitchen stoves that are used for heating, water heaters, and automobile exhaust.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref63">63</xref>] The principal outdoor source of CO pollution in most large urban areas are automobiles. Other sources of CO include cigarette smoke, human and animal respiration, industrial processes, and burning of fossil fuels.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref64">64</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-16"><title>Cardiovascular effects of carbon dioxide pollution</title><p>Exposure to CO has been implicated in the process of atherosclerosis. Evidence from human studies has shown that CO can exacerbate ischemic heart disease.</p></sec><sec id="sec2-17"><title>Mechanism of action of carbon monoxide pollution in cardiovascular disease</title><p>The predominant mechanism by which CO causes heart disease is through production of hypoxia. CO typically affects oxygenation of tissue due to carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) production, with consequent adverse to cardiovascular effects. The harmful effects of CO are more profound in the myocardium than in peripheral tissues because of very high oxygen extraction by the myocardium at rest.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref65">65</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-9"><title>Cigarette Smoke</title><sec id="sec2-18"><title>Sources of cigarette smoke pollution</title><p>Cigarette smoke consists of many chemicals, including nicotine, the addictive substance of cigarette smoke,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref66">66</xref>] tar or particulate phase with its many carcinogens, and gaseous compounds including CO.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref67">67</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-19"><title>Cardiovascular effects of cigarette smoke pollution</title><p>Cigarette smoking is a well-established risk factor for CVD in both men and women. There are a number of clinical atherosclerotic syndromes that are associated with cigarette smoking, including stable angina, acute coronary syndromes, sudden death, and stroke. It is reported that smokers who inhale deeply are likely to have an increased risk of both symptomatic peripheral arterial disease and abdominal aortic aneurysm.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref68">68</xref>] Epidemiological evidences have clearly shown that cigarette smoking in both men and women increases the incidence of myocardial infarction and CAD.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref69">69</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-20"><title>Mechanism of action of cigarette smoke in cardiovascular disease</title><p>It is reported that specific environmental toxins (such as tobacco smoke) introduced through the lungs can initiate and/or accelerate CVD development.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref70">70</xref>] Although there is clear evidence linking cigarette smoke exposure with CVD, the exact components of cigarette smoke and the mechanisms involved in cigarette smoking-related cardiovascular dysfunction have not been clearly elucidated.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref71">71</xref>] The effect of CO in cigarette smoke on athero-thrombotic disease has been controversial. In one study, it was reported that CO could be responsible for smoking-related cardiovascular alterations.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref72">72</xref>] In another study, it was found that CO from cigarette smoke was an unlikely cause for atherosclerosis or thrombus.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref73">73</xref>] In studies using experimental models, it was demonstrated that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present in the tar fraction of cigarette smoke have accelerated atherosclerosis.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref74">74</xref>] It is reported that although the contribution of nicotine in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality induced by cigarette smoking is uncertain, nicotine has a well-established acute and chronic cardiovascular effects, principally through sympathetic activation.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref75">75</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-10"><title>Biomass Smoke</title><sec id="sec2-21"><title>Sources of biomass smoke pollution</title><p>Indoor air pollution resulting from solid fuels, principally biomass and coal, has been ranked as one of top 10 environmental risk factors of global burden of disease by the World Health Organization.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref76">76</xref>] Studies have shown that biomass burning, especially wood, contribute to outdoor pollution.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref77">77</xref>] In the developing countries, organic materials such as wood, dung, or charcoal (biomass fuel) are burned and used for cooking, home heating, and lighting.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref78">78</xref>] It is reported that cooking or heating with biomass fuels in stoves or fireplaces vented to the outdoors (airtight stoves) produces high indoor air pollution. Studies from China showed that solid fuel use for cooking and heating are important activities contributing to indoor air pollution.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref79">79</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-22"><title>Cardiovascular effects of biomass smoke pollution</title><p>Biomass fuel-combustion smoke have been associated with adverse health effects.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref80">80</xref>] It is reported that biomass fuel represents a considerable risk to cardiovascular health. The burning of solid fuels in the homes release several pollutants including respirable PM, PAHs, heavy metals, and many other organic pollutants,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref81">81</xref>] which have been linked to CVDs. Studies have shown that exposure to PM can trigger acute cardiovascular events and accelerate chronic CVDs.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref82">82</xref>] Studies conducted in China have shown that CVDs are expected to increase considerably in China, and the future trends in blood pressure, diabetes, total cholesterol, and body mass index may drive the CVD epidemic for the next 20 years.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref83">83</xref>] Research has shown that biomass smoke in Guatemalan women increase diastolic blood pressure.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref75">75</xref>]</p></sec><sec id="sec2-23"><title>Mechanism of action of biomass smoke air pollution in cardiovascular disease</title><p>The biological mechanisms associated with the toxic effects of in-home solid fuel exposure-related cardiovascular system are not completely understood, but the principal mechanisms may be linked to inflammation through the generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. It is reported that the potential biological mechanisms of action of biomass smoke include oxidative stress, promotion of inflammation with a systemic release of cytokines, and blood coagulation. In another study in China, it was shown that the use of biomass for cooking greatly increases exposure to PM, especially for the person performing the cooking. The PM released from biomass burning contains prooxidative organic hydrocarbons, such as PAHs, particularly in particle phase, that may cause oxidative damage to DNA and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that can result in detrimental cardiovascular effects. Exposure to PAH from cooking using biomass fuel is associated with oxidative damage to DNA, assessed by 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), among workers in a Chinese restaurant.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref84">84</xref>] Research has shown that chronic exposure to biomass smoke causes an increase in the number of leukocyte-platelet aggregates among Indian women,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref85">85</xref>] and is recognized as a risk factor for thrombotic disease such as unstable angina,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref86">86</xref>] myocardial infarction,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref87">87</xref>] and stroke.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref88">88</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-11"><title>Carbon Disulfide Air Pollution</title><sec id="sec2-24"><title>Sources of carbon disulfide air pollution</title><p>CS<sub>2</sub> is described as a colorless, volatile, inflammable, and odorant liquid with a sweet aromatic odor. CS<sub>2</sub> is used mainly as an industrial chemical for the manufacture of rayon, cellophane, and carbon tetrachloride, as well as production of rubber chemicals and pesticides.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref55">55</xref>] This implies that exposure to CS<sub>2</sub> occurs predominantly in the workplace. It is reported that workers in industrial plants that utilize CS<sub>2</sub> in their manufacturing processes have a high degree of exposure potential.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref56">56</xref>] The release of CS<sub>2</sub> from industrial processes are almost exclusively to the air, and individuals in proximity to these sites may be exposed.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref55">55</xref>] Inhalation by humans is regarded as the main route of CS<sub>2</sub> absorption in both occupational and environmental exposure.</p></sec><sec id="sec2-25"><title>Cardiovascular effects of carbon disulfide air pollution</title><p>A study by Hernberg et al. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref89">89</xref>]suggested that workers exposed for at least 5 years to CS<sub>2</sub> showed an excess of deaths due to CHD. Previous studies reported the enhancing effects of CS<sub>2</sub> on atherosclerosis, including elevated serum cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides in experimental animals, which was confirmed by biochemical studies.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref90">90</xref>] Epidemiological studies have shown that chronic exposure to high concentrations of CS<sub>2</sub> may increase the risk of accelerated atherosclerosis and CHD.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref91">91</xref>] In many studies, it is reported that there is increased prevalence of high blood pressure, electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities, clinical CHD, and lipid metabolism disturbances in workers exposed to CS<sub>2</sub> in varying degrees.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref92">92</xref>] Multiple studies have shown an association between occupational exposure to CS<sub>2</sub> and CHD, even at lower exposures (30-120 mg/m<sup>3</sup>).[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref93">93</xref>] However, in many other studies, there was no significant increase of the risk for CHD, especially at lower levels of exposure.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref94">94</xref>] At low concentrations (under 30 mg/m<sup>3</sup>) of CS<sub>2</sub> the question of CHD risk is still a controversial issue.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref89">89</xref>] Ethnic differences were suggested to play a role. Research conducted in Japan, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia found that that there was no evidence that CS<sub>2</sub> exposure affected CHD incidence.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref89">89</xref>] These contradictory results suggest that CS<sub>2</sub> has coronary effects when predisposing factors to the development of CHD are present.</p></sec><sec id="sec2-26"><title>Mechanism of action of carbon disulfide air pollution in cardiovascular disease</title><p>In a study by Kotseva and De Bacquer,[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref95">95</xref>] it was shown that occupational exposure to CS<sub>2</sub> may increase total cholesterol and the risk of CHD. Their results also showed that there is a dose-response relationship between the level and duration of exposure and the prevalence of CHD. While the risk for CHD is increased in workers exposed to high CS<sub>2</sub> concentration for many years (CS<sub>2</sub> index ≥300), even a relatively modest exposure (CS<sub>2</sub> index >300) may increase serum cholesterol. The results imply that CS<sub>2</sub> may act by inducing disturbances in the lipid metabolism and acceleration of the atherosclerosis.[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref95">95</xref>]</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec1-12"><title>Conclusion and Future Directions</title><p>Research linking air pollution to CVDs has grown substantially. This article has discussed the emerging role of outdoor and indoor air pollutions in CVD. Previous research has shown associations between increased ambient air pollution and increased mortality, morbidity, hospitalization, and emergency department visits from CVD. Air pollution is a modifiable risk factor and understanding the harmful cardiovascular effects linked to it would enable preventive health measures to be taken, in order to reduce air pollution levels and associated diseases, and would be of further use to healthcare providers, regulatory agencies, and researchers. In addition, a better understanding of the biological mechanisms linking indoor/outdoor air pollution and CVD might become a vital target in developing novel pharmacological strategies focused on decreasing adverse effects of air pollution on cardiovascular system.</p></sec></body><back><fn-group><fn fn-type="supported-by"><p><bold>Source of Support:</bold> This work has been supported by a startup fund from the University of Massachusetts Lowell for Dr. Mahdi Garelnabi.</p></fn><fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Conflict of Interest:</bold> None declared.</p></fn></fn-group><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="ref1"><label>1</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><collab>U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</collab><article-title>Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter</article-title><source>Research Triangle Park, NC: US Environmental Protection Agency, National Center for Environmental Assessment EPA 600/P-99/002aF-bF</source><year>2004</year></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref2"><label>2</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pope</surname><given-names>CA</given-names><suffix>3rd</suffix></name><name><surname>Burnett</surname><given-names>RT</given-names></name><name><surname>Thun</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Calle</surname><given-names>EE</given-names></name><name><surname>Krewski</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Ito</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution</article-title><source>JAMA</source><year>2002</year><volume>287</volume><fpage>1132</fpage><lpage>41</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11879110</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref3"><label>3</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pope</surname><given-names>CA</given-names><suffix>3rd</suffix></name><name><surname>Burnett</surname><given-names>RT</given-names></name><name><surname>Thurston</surname><given-names>GD</given-names></name><name><surname>Thun</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Calle</surname><given-names>EE</given-names></name><name><surname>Krewski</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution: Epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease</article-title><source>Circulation</source><year>2004</year><volume>109</volume><fpage>71</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14676145</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref4"><label>4</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Garelnabi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Emerging Evidences from the contribution of the traditional and new risk factors to the atherosclerosis pathogenesis</article-title><source>J Med Sci</source><year>2010</year><volume>10</volume><fpage>136</fpage><lpage>44</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref5"><label>5</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Shepherd</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Cobbe</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name><name><surname>Ford</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Isles</surname><given-names>CG</given-names></name><name><surname>Lorimer</surname><given-names>AR</given-names></name><name><surname>MacFarlane</surname><given-names>PW</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia</article-title><source>N Engl J Med</source><year>1995</year><volume>333</volume><fpage>1301</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">7566020</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref6"><label>6</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Collins</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Peto</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>MacMahon</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Hebert</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Fiebach</surname><given-names>NH</given-names></name><name><surname>Eberlein</surname><given-names>KA</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Blood pressure, strokes and coronary heart disease. Part 2, short term reductions in blood pressure: Overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context</article-title><source>Lancet</source><year>1990</year><volume>335</volume><fpage>827</fpage><lpage>38</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">1969567</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref7"><label>7</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Parthasarathy</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Litvinov</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Selvarajan</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Garelnabi</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Lipid peroxidation and decomposition--conflicting roles in plaque vulnerability and stability</article-title><source>Biochim Biophys Acta</source><year>2008</year><volume>1781</volume><fpage>221</fpage><lpage>31</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18406361</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref8"><label>8</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kushi</surname><given-names>LH</given-names></name><name><surname>Folsom</surname><given-names>AR</given-names></name><name><surname>Prineas</surname><given-names>RJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Mink</surname><given-names>PJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name><name><surname>Bostick</surname><given-names>RM</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Dietary antioxidant vitamins and death from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women</article-title><source>N Engl J Med</source><year>1996</year><volume>334</volume><fpage>1156</fpage><lpage>62</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8602181</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref9"><label>9</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Karjalainen</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Kujala</surname><given-names>UM</given-names></name><name><surname>Kaprio</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Sarna</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Viitasalo</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Lone atrial fibrillation in vigorously exercising middle aged men: Case-control study</article-title><source>BMJ</source><year>1998</year><volume>316</volume><fpage>1784</fpage><lpage>5</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9624065</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref10"><label>10</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kannel</surname><given-names>WB</given-names></name><name><surname>McGee</surname><given-names>DL</given-names></name><name><surname>Schatzkin</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>An epidemiological perspective of sudden death 26 year follow up in the Framingham Study</article-title><source>Drugs</source><year>1984</year><volume>28</volume><fpage>1</fpage><lpage>16</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">6499693</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref11"><label>11</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ruston</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Clayton</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Calnan</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Patients’ action during their cardiac event: Qualitative study exploring differences and modifiable factors</article-title><source>BMJ</source><year>1998</year><volume>316</volume><fpage>1060</fpage><lpage>4</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9552909</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref12"><label>12</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>O’Toole</surname><given-names>TE</given-names></name><name><surname>Zheng</surname><given-names>YT</given-names></name><name><surname>Hellmann</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Conklin</surname><given-names>DJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Barski</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name><name><surname>Bhatnagar</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Acrolein activates matrix metalloproteinases by increasing reactive oxygen species in macrophages</article-title><source>Toxicol Appl Pharmacol</source><year>2009</year><volume>236</volume><fpage>194</fpage><lpage>201</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19371603</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref13"><label>13</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sun</surname><given-names>Q</given-names></name><name><surname>Yue</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Deiuliis</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name><name><surname>Lumeng</surname><given-names>CN</given-names></name><name><surname>Kampfrath</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Mikolaj</surname><given-names>MB</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Ambient air pollution exaggerates adipose inflammation and insulin resistance in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity</article-title><source>Circulation</source><year>2009</year><volume>119</volume><fpage>538</fpage><lpage>46</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19153269</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref14"><label>14</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Poloniecki</surname><given-names>JD</given-names></name><name><surname>Atkinson</surname><given-names>RW</given-names></name><name><surname>de Leon</surname><given-names>AP</given-names></name><name><surname>Anderson</surname><given-names>HR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Daily time series for cardiovascular hospital admissions and previous day’s air pollution in London, UK</article-title><source>Occup Environ Med</source><year>1997</year><volume>54</volume><fpage>534</fpage><lpage>40</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref15"><label>15</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Peters</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Liu</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Verrier</surname><given-names>RL</given-names></name><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Gold</surname><given-names>DR</given-names></name><name><surname>Mittleman</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Air pollution and incidence of cardiac arrhythmia</article-title><source>Epidemiology</source><year>2000</year><volume>11</volume><fpage>11</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10615837</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref16"><label>16</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Baccarelli</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Martinelli</surname><given-names>I</given-names></name><name><surname>Zanobetti</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Grillo</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Hou</surname><given-names>LF</given-names></name><name><surname>Bertazzi</surname><given-names>PA</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Exposure to particulate air pollution and risk of deep vein thrombosis</article-title><source>Arch Intern Med</source><year>2008</year><volume>168</volume><fpage>920</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18474755</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref17"><label>17</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Grahame</surname><given-names>TJ</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Does improved exposure information for PM 2.5 constituents explain differing results among epidemiological studies?</article-title><source>Inhal Toxicol</source><year>2009</year><volume>21</volume><fpage>381</fpage><lpage>93</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19234961</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref18"><label>18</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Brook</surname><given-names>RD</given-names></name><name><surname>Rajagopalan</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Particulate matter air pollution blood pressure</article-title><source>J Am Soc Hypertens</source><year>2009</year><volume>3</volume><fpage>332</fpage><lpage>50</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20409976</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref19"><label>19</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bhaskaran</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Hajat</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Haines</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Herrett</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Wilkinson</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Smeeth</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effects of air pollution on the incidence of myocardial infarction</article-title><source>Heart</source><year>2009</year><volume>95</volume><fpage>1746</fpage><lpage>59</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19635723</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref20"><label>20</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kampfrath</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Maiseyeu</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Ying</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name><name><surname>Shah</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name><name><surname>Deiuliis</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name><name><surname>Xu</surname><given-names>X</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Chronic fine particulate matter exposure induces systemic vascular dysfunction via NADPH oxidase and TLR4 pathways</article-title><source>Circ Res</source><year>2011</year><volume>108</volume><fpage>716</fpage><lpage>26</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21273555</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref21"><label>21</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Brunekreef</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Forsberg</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Epidemiological evidence of effects of coarse airborne particles on health</article-title><source>Eur Respir J</source><year>2005</year><volume>26</volume><fpage>309</fpage><lpage>18</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16055881</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref22"><label>22</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ostro</surname><given-names>BD</given-names></name><name><surname>Hurley</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Lipsett</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Air pollution and daily mortality in the Coachella Valley, California: A study of PM 10 dominated by coarse particles</article-title><source>Environ Res</source><year>1999</year><volume>81</volume><fpage>231</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10585019</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref23"><label>23</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Peng</surname><given-names>RD</given-names></name><name><surname>Chang</surname><given-names>HH</given-names></name><name><surname>Bell</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name><name><surname>McDermott</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Zeger</surname><given-names>SL</given-names></name><name><surname>Samet</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Coarse particulate matter air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases among medicare patients</article-title><source>JAMA</source><year>2008</year><volume>299</volume><fpage>2172</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">18477784</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref24"><label>24</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Liao</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Creason</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Shy</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Williams</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Watts</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Zweidinger</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Daily variation of particulate air pollution and poor cardiac autonomic control in the elderly</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>1999</year><volume>107</volume><fpage>521</fpage><lpage>5</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10378998</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref25"><label>25</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Lipsett</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Tsai</surname><given-names>FC</given-names></name><name><surname>Roger</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Woo</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Ostro</surname><given-names>BD</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Coarse particles and heart rate variability among older adults with coronary artery disease in the coachella valley, California</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>2006</year><volume>114</volume><fpage>1215</fpage><lpage>20</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16882528</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref26"><label>26</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Srebot</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Gianicolo</surname><given-names>EA</given-names></name><name><surname>Rainaldi</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Trivella</surname><given-names>MG</given-names></name><name><surname>Sicari</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Ozone and cardiovascular injury</article-title><source>Cardiovasc Ultrasound</source><year>2009</year><volume>7</volume><fpage>30</fpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19552797</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref27"><label>27</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Brook</surname><given-names>RD</given-names></name><name><surname>Franklin</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Cascio</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><name><surname>Hong</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name><name><surname>Howard</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Lipsett</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science of the American Heart Association</article-title><source>Circulation</source><year>2002</year><volume>109</volume><fpage>2655</fpage><lpage>71</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15173049</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref28"><label>28</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ponka</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Virtanen</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Low-level air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiac and cerebrovascular diseases in Helsinki</article-title><source>Am J Public Health</source><year>1996</year><volume>86</volume><fpage>1273</fpage><lpage>80</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8806380</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref29"><label>29</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular disease in Tucson</article-title><source>Epidemiology</source><year>1997</year><volume>8</volume><fpage>371</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9209849</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref30"><label>30</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Prescott</surname><given-names>GJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Cohen</surname><given-names>GR</given-names></name><name><surname>Elton</surname><given-names>RA</given-names></name><name><surname>Fowkes</surname><given-names>FG</given-names></name><name><surname>Agius</surname><given-names>RM</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Urban air pollution and cardiopulmonary ill health--a 14.5 year time series study</article-title><source>Occup Environ Med</source><year>1998</year><volume>55</volume><fpage>697</fpage><lpage>704</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9930092</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref31"><label>31</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Holguín</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Téllez-Rojo</surname><given-names>MM</given-names></name><name><surname>Hernández</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Cortez</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Chow</surname><given-names>JC</given-names></name><name><surname>Watson</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Air pollution and heart rate variability among the elderly in Mexico City</article-title><source>Epidemiology</source><year>2003</year><volume>14</volume><fpage>521</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14501266</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref32"><label>32</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bocci</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name><name><surname>Paulesu</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Studies on the biological effects of ozone: 1-Induction of interferon gamma on human leucocytes</article-title><source>Haematologica</source><year>1990</year><volume>75</volume><fpage>510</fpage><lpage>5</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">2129118</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref33"><label>33</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Larini</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Bocci</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effects of ozone on isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells</article-title><source>Toxicol <italic>In Vitro</italic></source><year>2005</year><volume>19</volume><fpage>55</fpage><lpage>61</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15582356</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref34"><label>34</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ye</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Piver</surname><given-names>WT</given-names></name><name><surname>Ando</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Portier</surname><given-names>CJ</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effects of temperature and air pollutants on cardiovascular and respiratory diseases for males and females older than 65 years of age in Tokyo, July and August 1980-1995</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>2001</year><volume>109</volume><fpage>355</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11335183</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref35"><label>35</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zeghnoun</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Czernichow</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Beaudeau</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Hautemanière</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Froment</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><name><surname>Le Tertre</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Short-term effects of air pollution on mortality in the cities of Rouen and Le Havre, France, 1990-1995</article-title><source>Arch Environ Health</source><year>2001</year><volume>56</volume><fpage>327</fpage><lpage>35</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11572276</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref36"><label>36</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Gold</surname><given-names>DR</given-names></name><name><surname>Litonjua</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Lovett</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><name><surname>Larson</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Nearing</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Ambient pollution and heart rate variability</article-title><source>Circulation</source><year>2000</year><volume>101</volume><fpage>1267</fpage><lpage>73</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10725286</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref37"><label>37</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kodavanti</surname><given-names>UP</given-names></name><name><surname>Schladweiler</surname><given-names>MC</given-names></name><name><surname>Ledbetter</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name><name><surname>Watkinson</surname><given-names>WP</given-names></name><name><surname>Campen</surname><given-names>MJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Winsett</surname><given-names>DW</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>The spontaneously hypertensive rat as a model of human cardiovascular disease: Evidence of exacerbated cardiopulmonary injury and oxidative stress from inhaled emission particulate matter</article-title><source>Toxicol Appl Pharmacol</source><year>2000</year><volume>164</volume><fpage>250</fpage><lpage>63</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10799335</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref38"><label>38</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ye</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Piver</surname><given-names>WT</given-names></name><name><surname>Ando</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Portier</surname><given-names>CJ</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effects of temperature and air pollutants on cardiovascular and respiratory diseases for males and females older than 65 years of age in Tokyo, July and August 1980-1995</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>2001</year><volume>109</volume><fpage>355</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11335183</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref39"><label>39</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mar</surname><given-names>TF</given-names></name><name><surname>Norris</surname><given-names>GA</given-names></name><name><surname>Koenig</surname><given-names>JQ</given-names></name><name><surname>Larson</surname><given-names>TV</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Associations between air pollution and mortality in Phoenix, 1995-1997</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>2000</year><volume>108</volume><fpage>347</fpage><lpage>53</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10753094</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref40"><label>40</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Wong</surname><given-names>TW</given-names></name><name><surname>Lau</surname><given-names>TS</given-names></name><name><surname>Yu</surname><given-names>TS</given-names></name><name><surname>Neller</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Wong</surname><given-names>SL</given-names></name><name><surname>Tam</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Air pollution and hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in Hong Kong</article-title><source>Occup Environ Med</source><year>1999</year><volume>56</volume><fpage>679</fpage><lpage>83</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10658547</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref41"><label>41</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Takano</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Yanagisawa</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Inoue</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Shimada</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Ichinose</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Sadakane</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Nitrogen dioxide air pollution near ambient levels is an atherogenic risk primarily in obese subjects: A brief communication</article-title><source>Exp Biol Med</source><year>2004</year><volume>229</volume><fpage>361</fpage><lpage>4</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref42"><label>42</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Leaderer</surname><given-names>BP</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Air pollutant emissions from kerosene space heaters</article-title><source>Science</source><year>1982</year><volume>218</volume><fpage>1113</fpage><lpage>5</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17752870</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref43"><label>43</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><collab>World Health Organization (WHO)</collab><article-title>Air quality guidelines for Europe</article-title><source>WHO Regional Publications, European Series No 23 Copenhagen</source><year>1987</year><publisher-loc>Denmark</publisher-loc><publisher-name>World Health Organization</publisher-name><fpage>23</fpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref44"><label>44</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sunyer</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Ballester</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Tertre</surname><given-names>AL</given-names></name><name><surname>Atkinson</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Ayres</surname><given-names>JG</given-names></name><name><surname>Forastiere</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>The association of daily sulfur dioxide air pollution levels with hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases in Europe (The Aphea-II study)</article-title><source>Eur Heart J</source><year>2003</year><volume>24</volume><fpage>752</fpage><lpage>60</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12713769</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref45"><label>45</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Junker</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Heinrich</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Ulbrich</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Schulte</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Schönfeld</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Köhler</surname><given-names>E</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Relationship between plasma viscosity and the severity of coronary heart disease</article-title><source>Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol</source><year>1998</year><volume>18</volume><fpage>870</fpage><lpage>5</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9633925</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref46"><label>46</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Peters</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Döring</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Wichmann</surname><given-names>HE</given-names></name><name><surname>Koenig</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Increased plasma viscosity during an air pollution episode: A link to mortality?</article-title><source>Lancet</source><year>1997</year><volume>349</volume><fpage>1582</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9174559</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref47"><label>47</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Chen</surname><given-names>SS</given-names></name><name><surname>Tang</surname><given-names>CS</given-names></name><name><surname>Jin</surname><given-names>HF</given-names></name><name><surname>DU</surname><given-names>JB</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Sulfur dioxide acts as a novel endogenous gaseous signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system</article-title><source>Chin Med J</source><year>2011</year><volume>124</volume><fpage>1901</fpage><lpage>5</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">21740851</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref48"><label>48</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><collab>California Air Resources Board (CARB)</collab><source>Report to the California legislature: Indoor aiir pollution in California</source><year>2005</year><publisher-loc>Sacramento, CA</publisher-loc><publisher-name>California Environmental Protection Agency</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref49"><label>49</label><element-citation publication-type="webpage"><collab>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</collab><source>Lead-based paint</source><year>2010</year><date-in-citation>Accessed May 18, 2013</date-in-citation><comment>at <uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://www.epa.gov/iaq/homes/hip-lead.html">http://www.epa.gov/iaq/homes/hip-lead.html</uri></comment></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref50"><label>50</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dulskiene</surname><given-names>V</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Environmental pollution with lead and myocardial infarction morbidity</article-title><source>Medicina (Kaunas)</source><year>2003</year><volume>39</volume><fpage>884</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">14515052</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref51"><label>51</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Glenn</surname><given-names>BS</given-names></name><name><surname>Stewart</surname><given-names>WF</given-names></name><name><surname>Links</surname><given-names>JM</given-names></name><name><surname>Todd</surname><given-names>AC</given-names></name><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>BS</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The longitudinal association of lead with blood pressure</article-title><source>Epidemiology</source><year>2003</year><volume>14</volume><fpage>30</fpage><lpage>6</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12500043</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref52"><label>52</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Weiss</surname><given-names>ST</given-names></name><name><surname>Muñoz</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Stein</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Sparrow</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Speizer</surname><given-names>FE</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>The relationship of blood lead to blood pressure in a longitudinal study of working men</article-title><source>Am J Epidemiol</source><year>1986</year><volume>123</volume><fpage>800</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3485920</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref53"><label>53</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><collab>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)</collab><article-title>Blood lead levels - United States, 1999 -2002</article-title><source>MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep</source><year>2005</year><volume>54</volume><fpage>513</fpage><lpage>6</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15917736</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref54"><label>54</label><element-citation publication-type="webpage"><collab>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</collab><source>Air quality criteria for lead (final)</source><year>2006</year><date-in-citation>Accessed May 18, 2013</date-in-citation><comment>at <uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=158823">http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=158823</uri></comment></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref55"><label>55</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><collab>Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)</collab><source>Toxicological Profile for Carbon disulfide (Update)</source><year>1996</year><publisher-loc>Atlanta</publisher-loc><publisher-name>Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref56"><label>56</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Carmignani</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Boscolo</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Poma</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Volpe</surname><given-names>AR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Kininergic system and arterial hypertension following chronic exposure to inorganic lead</article-title><source>Immunopharmacology</source><year>1999</year><volume>44</volume><fpage>105</fpage><lpage>10</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">10604532</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref57"><label>57</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Rodríguez-Iturbe</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name><name><surname>Sindhu</surname><given-names>RK</given-names></name><name><surname>Quiroz</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name><name><surname>Vaziri</surname><given-names>ND</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Chronic exposure to low doses of lead results in renal infiltration of immune cells, NF-kappaB activation, and overexpression of tubulointerstitial angiotensin II</article-title><source>Antioxid Redox Signal</source><year>2005</year><volume>7</volume><fpage>1269</fpage><lpage>74</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16115032</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref58"><label>58</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ding</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name><name><surname>Vaziri</surname><given-names>ND</given-names></name><name><surname>Gonick</surname><given-names>HC</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Lead-induced hypertension II. Response to sequential infusions of l-arginine, superoxide dismutase, and nitroprusside</article-title><source>Environ Res</source><year>1998</year><volume>76</volume><fpage>107</fpage><lpage>13</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9515065</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref59"><label>59</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Farmand</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Ehdaie</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Roberts</surname><given-names>CK</given-names></name><name><surname>Sindhu</surname><given-names>RK</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Lead-induced dysregulation of superoxide dismutases, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and guanylate cyclase</article-title><source>Environ Res</source><year>2005</year><volume>98</volume><fpage>33</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15721881</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref60"><label>60</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Revis</surname><given-names>NW</given-names></name><name><surname>Zinsmeister</surname><given-names>AR</given-names></name><name><surname>Bull</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Atherosclerosis and hypertension induction by lead and cadmium ions: An effect prevented by calcium ion</article-title><source>Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A</source><year>1981</year><volume>78</volume><fpage>6494</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">6947240</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref61"><label>61</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Lead, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease in men and women</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>1991</year><volume>9</volume><fpage>71</fpage><lpage>5</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">1828226</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref62"><label>62</label><element-citation publication-type="webpage"><collab>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</collab><source>Measuring Air Quality: The Pollutant Standards Index; Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, US EPA; EPA 451/K-94-001</source><year>1994</year><date-in-citation>Accessed May 18, 2013</date-in-citation><comment>at <uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://air.linn.ea.us/ambientair/carbon_monoxide.html">http://air.linn.ea.us/ambientair/carbon_monoxide.html</uri></comment></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref63"><label>63</label><element-citation publication-type="webpage"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Linn</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Carbon monoxide and you. MT 8315</article-title><source>Montana, United States: Montana State University Extension</source><year>1983</year><date-in-citation>Accessed May 18, 2013</date-in-citation><comment>at <uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/docs2/as60300.html">http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/docs2/as60300.html</uri></comment></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref64"><label>64</label><element-citation publication-type="webpage"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Greiner</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name></person-group><source>Indoor Air Quality: Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, ISU Extension Pub # AEN-125, Iowa, United States: Iowa State University</source><year>1991</year><date-in-citation>Accessed May 18, 2013</date-in-citation><comment>at <uri xlink:type="simple" xlink:href="http://www.ae.iastate.edu/housing/aen125.txt">http://www.ae.iastate.edu/housing/aen125.txt</uri></comment></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref65"><label>65</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ayres</surname><given-names>SM</given-names></name><name><surname>Giannelli</surname><given-names>S</given-names><suffix>Jr</suffix></name><name><surname>Mueller</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Myocardial and systemic responses to carboxyhemoglobin</article-title><source>Ann N Y Acad Sci</source><year>1970</year><volume>174</volume><fpage>268</fpage><lpage>93</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">5289605</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref66"><label>66</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Powell</surname><given-names>JT</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Vascular damage from smoking. Disease mechanisms at the arterial wall</article-title><source>Vasc Med</source><year>1998</year><volume>3</volume><fpage>21</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9666528</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref67"><label>67</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pryor</surname><given-names>WA</given-names></name><name><surname>Stone</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Oxidants in cigarette smoke. Radicals, hydrogen peroxide, peroxynitrate, and peroxynitrite</article-title><source>Ann N Y Acad Sci</source><year>1993</year><volume>686</volume><fpage>12</fpage><lpage>28</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8512242</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref68"><label>68</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Reddy</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Williams</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Johansson</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Energy after Rio</article-title><source>Prospects and Challenges</source><year>1996</year><publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc><publisher-name>United Nations Development Programme</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref69"><label>69</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Jin</surname><given-names>Y</given-names></name><name><surname>Zhou</surname><given-names>Z</given-names></name><name><surname>He</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Wei</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Liu</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Liu</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Geographical, spatial, and temporal distributions of multiple indoor air pollutants in four Chinese provinces</article-title><source>Environ Sci Technol</source><year>2005</year><volume>39</volume><fpage>9431</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">16475318</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref70"><label>70</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Viegi</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name><name><surname>Simoni</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Scognamiglio</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Baldacci</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Pistelli</surname><given-names>F</given-names></name><name><surname>Carrozzi</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Indoor air pollution and airway disease</article-title><source>Int J Tuberc Lung Dis</source><year>2004</year><volume>8</volume><fpage>1401</fpage><lpage>15</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">15636485</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref71"><label>71</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zhang</surname><given-names>JJ</given-names></name><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>KR</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Household air pollution from coal and biomass fuels in China: Measurements, health impacts, and interventions</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>2007</year><volume>115</volume><fpage>848</fpage><lpage>55</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17589590</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref72"><label>72</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Brook</surname><given-names>RD</given-names></name><name><surname>Rajagopalan</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Pope</surname><given-names>CA</given-names><suffix>3rd</suffix></name><name><surname>Brook</surname><given-names>JR</given-names></name><name><surname>Bhatnagar</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Diez-Roux</surname><given-names>AV</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association</article-title><source>Circulation</source><year>2010</year><volume>121</volume><fpage>2331</fpage><lpage>78</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20458016</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref73"><label>73</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Moran</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Gu</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Zhao</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>Coxson</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Wang</surname><given-names>YC</given-names></name><name><surname>Chen</surname><given-names>CS</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Future cardiovascular disease in china: Markov model and risk factor scenario projections from the coronary heart disease policy model-china</article-title><source>Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes</source><year>2010</year><volume>3</volume><fpage>243</fpage><lpage>52</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">20442213</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref74"><label>74</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>McCracken</surname><given-names>JP</given-names></name><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>KR</given-names></name><name><surname>Diaz</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Mittleman</surname><given-names>MA</given-names></name><name><surname>Schwartz</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Chimney stove intervention to reduce long-term wood smoke exposure lowers blood pressure among Guatemalan women</article-title><source>Environ Health Perspect</source><year>2007</year><volume>115</volume><fpage>996</fpage><lpage>1001</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17637912</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref75"><label>75</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kjeldsen</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Thomsen</surname><given-names>HK</given-names></name><name><surname>Astrup</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effects of carbon monoxide on myocardium. Ultrastructural changes in rabbits after moderate, chronic exposure</article-title><source>Circ Res</source><year>1974</year><volume>34</volume><fpage>339</fpage><lpage>48</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">4818758</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref76"><label>76</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zevin</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Saunders</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Gourlay</surname><given-names>SG</given-names></name><name><surname>Jacob</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Benowitz</surname><given-names>NL</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Cardiovascular effects of carbon monoxide and cigarette smoking</article-title><source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source><year>2001</year><volume>38</volume><fpage>1633</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11704374</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref77"><label>77</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Penn</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Currie</surname><given-names>J</given-names></name><name><surname>Snyder</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Inhalation of carbon monoxide does not accelerate arteriosclerosis in cockerels</article-title><source>Eur J Pharmacol</source><year>1992</year><volume>228</volume><fpage>155</fpage><lpage>64</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">1446720</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref78"><label>78</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Penn</surname><given-names>A</given-names></name><name><surname>Snyder</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Arteriosclerotic plaque development is promoted by polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons</article-title><source>Carcinogenesis</source><year>1988</year><volume>9</volume><fpage>2185</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">3142695</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref79"><label>79</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Benowitz</surname><given-names>NL</given-names></name><name><surname>Gourlay</surname><given-names>SG</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine: Implications for nicotine replacement therapy</article-title><source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source><year>1997</year><volume>29</volume><fpage>1422</fpage><lpage>31</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9180099</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref80"><label>80</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><collab>World Health Organization (WHO)</collab><source>World Health Report: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life</source><year>2002</year><publisher-loc>Geneva</publisher-loc><publisher-name>WHO</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref81"><label>81</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Naeher</surname><given-names>LP</given-names></name><name><surname>Brauer</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Lipsett</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Zelikoff</surname><given-names>JT</given-names></name><name><surname>Simpson</surname><given-names>CD</given-names></name><name><surname>Koenig</surname><given-names>JQ</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Woodsmoke health effects: A review</article-title><source>Inhal Toxicol</source><year>2007</year><volume>19</volume><fpage>67</fpage><lpage>106</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17127644</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref82"><label>82</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Bailis</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Ezzati</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Kammen</surname><given-names>DM</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Greenhouse gas implications of household energy technology in Kenya</article-title><source>Environ Sci Technol</source><year>2003</year><volume>37</volume><fpage>2051</fpage><lpage>9</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">12785507</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref83"><label>83</label><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ostro</surname><given-names>B</given-names></name></person-group><source>Outdoor air pollution: Assessing the environmental burden of disease at national and local levels</source><year>2004</year><publisher-loc>Geneva, Switzerland</publisher-loc><publisher-name>World Health Organization</publisher-name></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref84"><label>84</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Pan</surname><given-names>CH</given-names></name><name><surname>Chan</surname><given-names>CC</given-names></name><name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>KY</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Effects on Chinese restaurant workers of exposure to cooking oil fumes: A cautionary note on urinary 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine</article-title><source>Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev</source><year>2008</year><volume>17</volume><fpage>3351</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">19064550</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref85"><label>85</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Ray</surname><given-names>MR</given-names></name><name><surname>Mukherjee</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Roychoudhury</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><name><surname>Bhattacharya</surname><given-names>P</given-names></name><name><surname>Banerjee</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Siddique</surname><given-names>S</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Platelet activation, upregulation of CD11b/CD18 expression on leukocytes and increase in circulating leukocyte-platelet aggregates in Indian women chronically exposed to biomass smoke</article-title><source>Hum Exp Toxicol</source><year>2006</year><volume>25</volume><fpage>627</fpage><lpage>35</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">17211980</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref86"><label>86</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Entman</surname><given-names>ML</given-names></name><name><surname>Ballantyne</surname><given-names>CM</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Association of neutrophils with platelet aggregates in unstable angina. Should we alter therapy?</article-title><source>Circulation</source><year>1996</year><volume>94</volume><fpage>1206</fpage><lpage>8</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8822969</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref87"><label>87</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Michelson</surname><given-names>AD</given-names></name><name><surname>Barnard</surname><given-names>MR</given-names></name><name><surname>Krueger</surname><given-names>LA</given-names></name><name><surname>Valeri</surname><given-names>CR</given-names></name><name><surname>Furman</surname><given-names>MI</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Circulating monocyte-platelet aggregates are a more sensitive marker of <italic>in vivo</italic> platelet activation than platelet surface P-selectin: Studies in baboons, human coronary intervention, and human acute myocardial infarction</article-title><source>Circulation</source><year>2001</year><volume>104</volume><fpage>1533</fpage><lpage>7</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">11571248</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref88"><label>88</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Konstantopoulos</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Grotta</surname><given-names>JC</given-names></name><name><surname>Sills</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Wu</surname><given-names>KK</given-names></name><name><surname>Hellums</surname><given-names>JD</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Shear-induced platelet aggregation in normal subjects and stroke patients</article-title><source>Thromb Haemost</source><year>1995</year><volume>74</volume><fpage>1329</fpage><lpage>34</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">8607118</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref89"><label>89</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Beauchamp</surname><given-names>RO</given-names><suffix>Jr</suffix></name><name><surname>Bus</surname><given-names>JS</given-names></name><name><surname>Popp</surname><given-names>JA</given-names></name><name><surname>Boreiko</surname><given-names>C J</given-names></name><name><surname>Golberg</surname><given-names>L</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>A critical review of the literature on carbon disulfide toxicity</article-title><source>Crit Rev Toxicol</source><year>1983</year><volume>11</volume><fpage>169</fpage><lpage>278</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">6349939</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref90"><label>90</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Zanettini</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Kotseva</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Agostini</surname><given-names>O</given-names></name><name><surname>Cesana</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Occupational exposure to chemical and physical factors and cardiovascular diseases</article-title><source>Arch Science Lav</source><year>1989</year><volume>5</volume><fpage>347</fpage><lpage>58</lpage></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref91"><label>91</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Oliver</surname><given-names>LC</given-names></name><name><surname>Weber</surname><given-names>RP</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Chest pain in rubber chemical workers exposed to carbon disulphide and methaemoglobin formers</article-title><source>Br J Ind Med</source><year>1984</year><volume>41</volume><fpage>296</fpage><lpage>304</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">6611171</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref92"><label>92</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Vanhoorne</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>De Bacquer</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name><name><surname>De Backer</surname><given-names>G</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Epidemiological study on the cardiovascular effects of carbon disulphide</article-title><source>Int J Epidemiol</source><year>1992</year><volume>21</volume><fpage>745</fpage><lpage>52</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">1521980</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref93"><label>93</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Drexler</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Ulm</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Hubmann</surname><given-names>M</given-names></name><name><surname>Hardt</surname><given-names>R</given-names></name><name><surname>Goen</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Mondorf</surname><given-names>W</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Carbon disulphide III. Risk factors for coronary heart diseasees in workers in the viscose industry</article-title><source>Int Arch Occup Environ Health</source><year>1995</year><volume>67</volume><fpage>243</fpage><lpage>52</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">7591185</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref94"><label>94</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Omae</surname><given-names>K</given-names></name><name><surname>Takebayashi</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Nomiyama</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><name><surname>Ishizuka</surname><given-names>C</given-names></name><name><surname>Nakashima</surname><given-names>H</given-names></name><name><surname>Uemura</surname><given-names>T</given-names></name><etal></etal></person-group><article-title>Cross sectional observation of the effects of carbon disulphide on arteriosclerosis in rayon manufacturing workers</article-title><source>Occup Environ Med</source><year>1998</year><volume>55</volume><fpage>468</fpage><lpage>72</lpage><pub-id pub-id-type="pmid">9816380</pub-id></element-citation></ref><ref id="ref95"><label>95</label><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kotseva</surname><given-names>KP</given-names></name><name><surname>De Bacquer</surname><given-names>D</given-names></name></person-group><article-title>Cardiovascular effects of occupational exposure to carbon disulphide</article-title><source>Occup Med</source><year>2000</year><volume>50</volume><fpage>43</fpage><lpage>7</lpage></element-citation></ref></ref-list></back></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
EXPLOR_STEP=$WICRI_ROOT/Wicri/France/explor/LeHavreV1/Data/Pmc/Corpus
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_STEP/biblio.hfd -nk 000237 | SxmlIndent | more
Ou
HfdSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd -nk 000237 | SxmlIndent | more
Pour mettre un lien sur cette page dans le réseau Wicri
{{Explor lien
|wiki= Wicri/France
|area= LeHavreV1
|flux= Pmc
|étape= Corpus
|type= RBID
|clé= PMC:3784920
|texte= The Emerging Role of Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution in Cardiovascular Disease
}}
Pour générer des pages wiki
HfdIndexSelect -h $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/RBID.i -Sk "pubmed:24083218" \
| HfdSelect -Kh $EXPLOR_AREA/Data/Pmc/Corpus/biblio.hfd \
| NlmPubMed2Wicri -a LeHavreV1
| This area was generated with Dilib version V0.6.25. |  |