Questioning hagfish affinities of the enigmatic Devonian vertebrate Palaeospondylus
Identifieur interne : 002D00 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 002C99; suivant : 002D01Questioning hagfish affinities of the enigmatic Devonian vertebrate Palaeospondylus
Auteurs : Zerina Johanson ; Moya Smith ; Sophie Sanchez ; Tim Senden ; Kate Trinajstic ; Cathrin PfaffSource :
- Royal Society Open Science [ 2054-5703 ] ; 2017.
Abstract
Url:
DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170214
PubMed: 28791148
PubMed Central: 5541543
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PMC:5541543Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Questioning hagfish affinities of the enigmatic Devonian vertebrate <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic></title><author><name sortKey="Johanson, Zerina" sort="Johanson, Zerina" uniqKey="Johanson Z" first="Zerina" last="Johanson">Zerina Johanson</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1"><institution>Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Moya" sort="Smith, Moya" uniqKey="Smith M" first="Moya" last="Smith">Moya Smith</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1"><institution>Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2"><institution>Tissue Engineering and Biophotonics, Dental Institute, King's College London</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sanchez, Sophie" sort="Sanchez, Sophie" uniqKey="Sanchez S" first="Sophie" last="Sanchez">Sophie Sanchez</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3"><institution>Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University</institution>,<addr-line>Uppsala</addr-line>,<country>Sweden</country></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af4"><institution>European Synchrotron Radiation Facility</institution>,<addr-line>Grenoble</addr-line>,<country>France</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Senden, Tim" sort="Senden, Tim" uniqKey="Senden T" first="Tim" last="Senden">Tim Senden</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af5"><institution>Department of Applied Mathematics, Research School of Physics and Engineering, Australian National University</institution>,<addr-line>Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601</addr-line>,<country>Australia</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Trinajstic, Kate" sort="Trinajstic, Kate" uniqKey="Trinajstic K" first="Kate" last="Trinajstic">Kate Trinajstic</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af6"><institution>Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University</institution>,<addr-line>Kent Street, Bentley, Perth</addr-line>,<country>Australia</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pfaff, Cathrin" sort="Pfaff, Cathrin" uniqKey="Pfaff C" first="Cathrin" last="Pfaff">Cathrin Pfaff</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af7"><institution>Department of Palaeontology, University of Vienna</institution>,<addr-line>Vienna</addr-line>,<country>Austria</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">28791148</idno><idno type="pmc">5541543</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5541543</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:5541543</idno><idno type="doi">10.1098/rsos.170214</idno><date when="2017">2017</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">002D00</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">002D00</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Questioning hagfish affinities of the enigmatic Devonian vertebrate <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic></title><author><name sortKey="Johanson, Zerina" sort="Johanson, Zerina" uniqKey="Johanson Z" first="Zerina" last="Johanson">Zerina Johanson</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1"><institution>Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Moya" sort="Smith, Moya" uniqKey="Smith M" first="Moya" last="Smith">Moya Smith</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af1"><institution>Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af2"><institution>Tissue Engineering and Biophotonics, Dental Institute, King's College London</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sanchez, Sophie" sort="Sanchez, Sophie" uniqKey="Sanchez S" first="Sophie" last="Sanchez">Sophie Sanchez</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af3"><institution>Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University</institution>,<addr-line>Uppsala</addr-line>,<country>Sweden</country></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af4"><institution>European Synchrotron Radiation Facility</institution>,<addr-line>Grenoble</addr-line>,<country>France</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Senden, Tim" sort="Senden, Tim" uniqKey="Senden T" first="Tim" last="Senden">Tim Senden</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af5"><institution>Department of Applied Mathematics, Research School of Physics and Engineering, Australian National University</institution>,<addr-line>Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601</addr-line>,<country>Australia</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Trinajstic, Kate" sort="Trinajstic, Kate" uniqKey="Trinajstic K" first="Kate" last="Trinajstic">Kate Trinajstic</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af6"><institution>Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University</institution>,<addr-line>Kent Street, Bentley, Perth</addr-line>,<country>Australia</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pfaff, Cathrin" sort="Pfaff, Cathrin" uniqKey="Pfaff C" first="Cathrin" last="Pfaff">Cathrin Pfaff</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="af7"><institution>Department of Palaeontology, University of Vienna</institution>,<addr-line>Vienna</addr-line>,<country>Austria</country></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Royal Society Open Science</title><idno type="eISSN">2054-5703</idno><imprint><date when="2017">2017</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p><italic>Palaeospondylus gunni</italic> Traquair, 1890 is an enigmatic Devonian vertebrate whose taxonomic affinities have been debated since it was first described. Most recently, <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> has been identified as a stem-group hagfish (Myxinoidea). However, one character questioning this assignment is the presence of three semicircular canals in the otic region of the cartilaginous skull, a feature of jawed vertebrates. Additionally, new tomographic data reveal that the following characters of crown-group gnathostomes (chondrichthyans + osteichthyans) are present in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>: a longer telencephalic region of the braincase, separation of otic and occipital regions by the otico-occipital fissure, and vertebral centra. As well, a precerebral fontanelle and postorbital articulation of the palatoquadrate are characteristic of certain chondrichthyans. Similarities in the structure of the postorbital process to taxa such as <italic>Pucapampella</italic>, and possible presence of the ventral cranial fissure, both support a resolution of <italic>Pa. gunni</italic> as a stem chondrichthyan. The internally mineralized cartilaginous skeleton in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> may represent a stage in the loss of bone characteristic of the Chondrichthyes.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Newman, Mj" uniqKey="Newman M">MJ Newman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Trewin, Nh" uniqKey="Trewin N">NH Trewin</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Newman, Mj" uniqKey="Newman M">MJ Newman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Andrews, Sd" uniqKey="Andrews S">SD Andrews</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hartely, Aj" uniqKey="Hartely A">AJ Hartely</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Newman, Mj" uniqKey="Newman M">MJ Newman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mark Kurik, E" uniqKey="Mark Kurik E">E Mark-Kurik</name></author><author><name sortKey="Den Blaauwen, Jl" 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">R Soc Open Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">R Soc Open Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">RSOS</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">royopensci</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Royal Society Open Science</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">2054-5703</issn><publisher><publisher-name>The Royal Society Publishing</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">28791148</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">5541543</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1098/rsos.170214</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">rsos170214</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="hwp-journal-coll"><subject>1001</subject><subject>70</subject><subject>1005</subject><subject>144</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Earth Science</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="leader"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Questioning hagfish affinities of the enigmatic Devonian vertebrate <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic></article-title><alt-title alt-title-type="short"><italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> affinity</alt-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="false">http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8444-6776</contrib-id><name><surname>Johanson</surname><given-names>Zerina</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1">1</xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>Moya</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2">2</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Sanchez</surname><given-names>Sophie</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3">3</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4">4</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Senden</surname><given-names>Tim</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af5">5</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Trinajstic</surname><given-names>Kate</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af6">6</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid" authenticated="false">http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5539-2097</contrib-id><name><surname>Pfaff</surname><given-names>Cathrin</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af7">7</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="af1"><label>1</label><institution>Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></aff><aff id="af2"><label>2</label><institution>Tissue Engineering and Biophotonics, Dental Institute, King's College London</institution>,<addr-line>London</addr-line>,<country>UK</country></aff><aff id="af3"><label>3</label><institution>Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University</institution>,<addr-line>Uppsala</addr-line>,<country>Sweden</country></aff><aff id="af4"><label>4</label><institution>European Synchrotron Radiation Facility</institution>,<addr-line>Grenoble</addr-line>,<country>France</country></aff><aff id="af5"><label>5</label><institution>Department of Applied Mathematics, Research School of Physics and Engineering, Australian National University</institution>,<addr-line>Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601</addr-line>,<country>Australia</country></aff><aff id="af6"><label>6</label><institution>Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University</institution>,<addr-line>Kent Street, Bentley, Perth</addr-line>,<country>Australia</country></aff><aff id="af7"><label>7</label><institution>Department of Palaeontology, University of Vienna</institution>,<addr-line>Vienna</addr-line>,<country>Austria</country></aff><author-notes><corresp id="cor1">Author for correspondence: Zerina Johanson e-mail: <email>z.johanson@nhm.ac.uk</email></corresp><fn fn-type="other"><p>Electronic supplementary material is available online at <uri xlink:href="https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.3817855">https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.3817855</uri>.</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><month>7</month><year>2017</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>19</day><month>7</month><year>2017</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>19</day><month>7</month><year>2017</year></pub-date><pmc-comment> PMC Release delay is 0 months and 0 days and was based on the
<volume>4</volume><issue>7</issue><elocation-id>170214</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>8</day><month>3</month><year>2017</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>20</day><month>6</month><year>2017</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2017 The Authors.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2017</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="rsos170214.pdf"></self-uri><abstract><p><italic>Palaeospondylus gunni</italic> Traquair, 1890 is an enigmatic Devonian vertebrate whose taxonomic affinities have been debated since it was first described. Most recently, <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> has been identified as a stem-group hagfish (Myxinoidea). However, one character questioning this assignment is the presence of three semicircular canals in the otic region of the cartilaginous skull, a feature of jawed vertebrates. Additionally, new tomographic data reveal that the following characters of crown-group gnathostomes (chondrichthyans + osteichthyans) are present in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>: a longer telencephalic region of the braincase, separation of otic and occipital regions by the otico-occipital fissure, and vertebral centra. As well, a precerebral fontanelle and postorbital articulation of the palatoquadrate are characteristic of certain chondrichthyans. Similarities in the structure of the postorbital process to taxa such as <italic>Pucapampella</italic>, and possible presence of the ventral cranial fissure, both support a resolution of <italic>Pa. gunni</italic> as a stem chondrichthyan. The internally mineralized cartilaginous skeleton in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> may represent a stage in the loss of bone characteristic of the Chondrichthyes.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd><italic>Palaeospondylus</italic></kwd><kwd>X-ray tomography</kwd><kwd>hagfish</kwd><kwd>Chondrichthyes</kwd><kwd>jawed vertebrates</kwd><kwd>chondrocranium</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group specific-use="FundRef"><award-group><funding-source><institution-wrap><institution>Australian Research Council Discovery</institution></institution-wrap></funding-source><award-id>DP110101127</award-id></award-group></funding-group><funding-group specific-use="FundRef"><award-group><funding-source><institution-wrap><institution>ESRF</institution></institution-wrap></funding-source><award-id>proposal EC690 and inhouse beamtime</award-id></award-group></funding-group><funding-group specific-use="FundRef"><award-group><funding-source><institution-wrap><institution>Swedish Research Council</institution></institution-wrap></funding-source><award-id>Vetenskapsrådet, 2015-04335</award-id></award-group></funding-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>cover-date</meta-name><meta-value>July, 2017</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="s1"><label>1.</label><title>Introduction</title><p><italic>Palaeospondylus gunni</italic> Traquair, 1890 is commonly found in the Middle Devonian Achanarras fish beds, Achanarras Quarry (Scotland), part of a deeper-water lake fauna including jawless fishes ([<xref rid="RSOS170214C1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS170214C3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>], but see [<xref rid="RSOS170214C4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>] for possible marine influence) and gnathostomes including placoderms, acanthodians and osteichthyans. The fishes occur throughout several beds, with <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> co-occurring with the lungfish <italic>Dipterus</italic>, the acanthodian <italic>Mesacanthus,</italic> and the placoderm <italic>Pterichthyodes</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS170214C5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>]. Previously, <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> has been assigned to almost every major jawless and jawed vertebrate group and identified as both larval and adult [<xref rid="RSOS170214C6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS170214C11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>]. Most recently, Hirasawa <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>] described similarities between <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> and larvae of the extant hagfish <italic>Eptatretus burgeri</italic>, suggesting a hagfish affinity, and more particularly as a stem hagfish. However, new X-ray tomographic scans of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> provide important new details of cranial anatomy, particularly with respect to the otic capsule and vestibular system, allowing us to identify <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> as a jawed vertebrate rather than a jawless hagfish. More specifically, crown-group gnathostome characteristics (elongate telencephalon of the braincase, vertebral centra) are present in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>, additionally the large L-shaped element on the lateral braincase is identified as a postorbital process, with the palatoquadrate articulating posteroventrally on this process. Along with a precerebral fontanelle, these suggest a chondrichthyan affinity for <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>, with similarity to the stem chondrichthyans such as <italic>Pucapampella</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS170214C13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS170214C15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>].</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods" id="s2"><label>2.</label><title>Material and methods</title><sec id="s2a"><label>2.1.</label><title>Specimens</title><p>Specimens of <italic>Pa. gunni</italic> examined are from the Middle Old Red Sandstone, Achanarras Quarry, Scotland, including NHMUK PV P.22392, P.59351, P.66582, P.59333, P.59645, P66582 (Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London).</p></sec><sec id="s2b"><label>2.2.</label><title>X-ray tomography</title><p>The <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> chondrocranium was scanned from 10 micro slices by the ultrafine computed tomography (CT) scanner in the Department of Applied Mathematics, Australian National University, Australia and at beamline ID19, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France (see the electronic supplementary material for technical details). The high-resolution scans presented here all have a voxel size of 5 µm. A movie of the TIFF stack, from lateral to medial, is available at the Natural History Museum (NHM) Data Portal (see Data accessibility, below). Scans were three-dimensional volume rendered using D<sc>rishti</sc> v. 2.4 software (sf.anu.edu.au/Vizlab/drishti/).</p></sec><sec id="s2c"><label>2.3.</label><title>Three-dimensional volumetric rendering</title><p>We analysed the synchrotron data with the software CT-A<sc>nalyser</sc> (v. 1.14.4.1) and CT<sc>vox</sc> (v. 2.7.0) by Bruker/Skyscan. Working with different grey-values and transparency, CT-A<sc>nalyser</sc> allowed us to distinguish the <italic>Pa. gunni</italic> specimen (P.66582) from the surrounding sediment. Details of the CT<sc>vox</sc> settings are found in the electronic supplementary material. Three-dimensional segmentation of internal structures was not possible.</p></sec><sec id="s2d"><label>2.4.</label><title>Macrophotography</title><p>Specimens were photographed with a Canon EOS 1100D, and a Leica MZ microscope (Leica Application Suite 2.8.1), with images processed in A<sc>dobe</sc> P<sc>hotoshop</sc> (CC 2014.2.2) to improve contrast.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s3"><label>3.</label><title>Results</title><p>Individuals of <italic>Pa. gunni</italic> have a distinctive morphology, with a large chondrocranium, mandibular arch skeleton and extensive vertebral column with a well-developed caudal fin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>e,g</italic>; [<xref rid="RSOS170214C6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>]). More posterior branchial arches and paired appendages appear to be absent, even as imprints, as do unpaired dorsal and anal fins. The vertebral column comprises stout elements through most of its length but anteriorly displays an unusual series of vertebrae associated with two blade-like, posteriorly directed structures (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref>; electronic supplementary material, figure S1). <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> is normally preserved in dorsal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>a,b,d,f</italic>) or ventral view (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>e,g</italic>); new X-ray tomographic data allow for a modified three-dimensional visualization in lateral view (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>h</italic>; [<xref rid="RSOS170214C16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>]), allowing for a revised interpretation of the prominent L-shaped structure on the lateral face of the chondrocranium and the element articulating to the posteroventral margin of this structure. A more complete examination of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> morphology is provided in the electronic supplementary material; phylogenetically relevant characters, particularly with respect to the recent identification of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> as a hagfish, are described below.
<fig id="RSOS170214F1" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p><italic>Palaeospondylus gunni</italic>, Achanarras Quarry (Devonian), Scotland. (<italic>a,b</italic>) NHMUK PVP22393, stereopair. Asterisk indicates position of the precerebral fontanelle; (<italic>c,e</italic>) NHMUK PVP59563, macrophotograph of ventral chondrocranium (<italic>c</italic>), and entire specimen (<italic>e</italic>); (<italic>d,f,h</italic>) NHMUK PVP66582, chondrocranium and anterior vertebrae including lateral elements (syn) forming synarcual anteriorly. Detailed mineralized tissue structure is resolved in the entire skeleton, round lacunae surrounded by interlacunar mineralization and dense perilacunar tissue. (<italic>d</italic>) Ventral, (<italic>f</italic>) dorsal and (<italic>h</italic>) ventrolateral views, three-dimensional volume rendered (Drishti). Asterisk in (<italic>h</italic>) indicates position of jugular canal, white arrowhead the posteroventral articulation of the palatoquadrate on the postorbital process; (<italic>g</italic>) ventral view of entire specimen, macrophotograph. 1–5, elements of the nasal capsule; 6–8, elements associated with rostral structure (see the electronic supplementary material, figure S1 for numbers not shown here); II, optic cranial nerve; br.r, braincase roof; lop, lateral otic process; Mk, Meckel's cartilage; n1, nerve foramen (medial supraopthalmic branches of trigeminal, facial cranial nerves); na, neural arch; occ, occipital; orb, orbit; po.pro, postorbital process; ot, otic capsule; pq, palatoquadrate; ro, rostral sensory structure; syn, lateral elements forming synarcual with anterior vertebral elements; tr, trabeculae; vcf, ventral cranial fissure; v, vertebral elements.
</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="rsos170214-g1"></graphic></fig></p><sec id="s3a"><label>3.1.</label><title>Phylogenetically important characters of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic></title><p>The most recognizable parts of the <italic>Pa. gunni</italic> chondrocranium are the otic capsules at the posterior margin of the braincase (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>a,b,d,f</italic>; ot, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F2">figure 2</xref><italic>a,b</italic>), which occupy almost one-third of the cranium. Internally, the otic region preserves three relatively wide semicircular canals (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F2">figure 2</xref>; ASC, anterior semicircular canal; PSC, posterior semicircular canal; HSC, horizontal semicircular canal) and the three associated ampullae (aa; anterior ampulla; pa, posterior ampulla; ha, horizontal ampulla; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F2">figure 2</xref><italic>b</italic>), which are filled partially with sediment. Additionally, an endolymphatic duct between the ASC and PSC may be recognized, opening onto the dorsal surface of the braincase (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F2">figure 2</xref><italic>b,d</italic>; ed, electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>c</italic>; ed?). A large sac-like region, the saccular or sacculo-lagenar sac, is present, below and medial to the ASC and PSC, shifted from its usual ventral position during post-mortem compression (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F2">figure 2</xref><italic>b</italic>; lag.sac). Otoliths within this sac are absent.
<fig id="RSOS170214F2" orientation="portrait" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p><italic>Palaeospondylus gunni</italic>, Achanarras Quarry (Devonian), Scotland. (<italic>a,b</italic>) NHMUK PVP P66582, ventral view of the otic region, volumetric rendered (CT<sc>vox</sc>), for better visualization of internal structures dorsal and ventral parts of the specimen are removed. (<italic>c,d</italic>) More ventral tilted ‘virtual’ plane through the specimen. ASC, anterior semicircular canal; PSC, posterior semicircular canal; HSC, horizontal semicircular canal; aa, anterior ampulla; ed, endolymphatic duct; pa, posterior ampulla; ha, horizontal ampulla; lag.sac, sacculo-lagenar sac.
</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="rsos170214-g2"></graphic></fig></p><p>Immediately posterior to the otic capsules and separate from these [<xref rid="RSOS170214C16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>] are small, comma-shaped structures. Given their position relative to the otic capsules, and their similarity to comparable structures in some bony fishes ([<xref rid="RSOS170214C17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]: pls 24, 66), they are identified as the occipitals (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>c,e,h</italic>; occ). Separation of the occipitals implies the presence of a fissure between the otic and occipital regions. Additionally, a ventral cranial fissure may be present, separating the otic capsules from the more anterior ethmosphenoid region of the braincase (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>a,b,f</italic>; electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>a</italic>; vcf). At the posterior margin of the chondrocranium, paired foraminae are visible (electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>b,d</italic>; lda), an assumed entrance of the lateral dorsal aorta.</p><p>Anterior to the otic capsules on the lateral chondrocranium, is a large, L-shaped structure enclosing a foramen near its base (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>h</italic>, electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>b,d</italic>; asterisk). Dorsally, this structure is flat and is associated with a foramen for cranial nerve II (optic nerve) in the sidewall of the chondrocranium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>d</italic>, electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>a</italic>, orb, II; [<xref rid="RSOS170214C18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>]). This association, and location anterior to the otic capsule suggests that this is the floor of the orbit. Nerve II marks the anterior border of the diencephalon with the telencephalon, suggesting that this is relatively long in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>. The L-shaped structure beneath and behind the orbit is interpreted as the postorbital process. Two elements articulate with the postorbital process, forming a V-shaped structure ventrally (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>c,e,g</italic>); these are interpreted as the palatoquadrate and Meckel's cartilage, forming the mandibular arch. Generally, the hyomandibular (hyoid arch) articulates posterior to the ventral cranial fissure on a process associated with the otic region [<xref rid="RSOS170214C20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>], suggesting that these structures anterior to the fissure are reasonably identified as the mandibular arch.</p><p>The chondrocranium anterior to the orbit is difficult to interpret, although this region must include the nasal capsules (see the electronic supplementary material). Medially, a pair of elongate elements forms the roof of the chondrocranium, but do not extend to the anterior margin of the chondrocranium. This leaves a substantial open area anteriorly [<xref rid="RSOS170214C18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>], reminiscent of the precerebral fontanelle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>a,b,f</italic>, br.r, electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>a</italic>, asterisk; [<xref rid="RSOS170214C21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>]). Additional morphological features are described in the electronic supplementary material.</p></sec><sec id="s3b"><label>3.2.</label><title><italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> as a stem-group hagfish</title><p>Previously, <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> was identified as either a member of the Cyclostomata or related to this group in some way [<xref rid="RSOS170214C22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS170214C26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>], and most recently as a stem-group hagfish, based on similarities of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> to specific embryonic developmental stages of the hagfish <italic>E. burgeri</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>]. However, our new data show that several structures have been misidentified in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>, including a cage-shaped nasal capsule, two pairs of dorsal longitudinal cartilage bars linked by commissures, and a velar bar and large lingual plates ventrally. In <italic>E. burgeri</italic> embryos, the pairs of longitudinal cartilages run anteroposteriorly along the chondrocranium, linked by transverse commissures and are continuous with the otic capsule posteriorly. In <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>, the more medial of these putative longitudinal cartilages (forming the braincase roof as described above, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>a,b</italic>,<italic>f</italic>; br.r) were reconstructed as continuous with the anterior margin of the otic capsule [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>, fig. 3<italic>a,b</italic>], but in fact, these elements are distinct from the otic region, marking the position of the possible ventral cranial fissure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>a,b,f</italic>; vcf). Transverse commissures 1 and 2 are also incorrectly identified in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>, with the first being a distinct and separate element identified here as part of the nasal capsule (electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>b</italic>; 5). This element is entirely within the chondrocranium (although visible in external view; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>f</italic>), rather than being an external commissure [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>, fig. 3<italic>a</italic>, comm.1]. Commissure 2 is also a separate element in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>, forming an anterior wall to the orbit (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>a,b,f</italic>; electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>b</italic>). In both cases, these elements are not continuous or contiguous with other cartilaginous parts of the braincase.</p><p>Following Bulman [<xref rid="RSOS170214C18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>], Hirasawa <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>, fig. 3<italic>b,d</italic>] identified a series of ventral elements in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> (e.g. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>c,e,g</italic>) as the velar bar and lingual bar, comparable to <italic>E. burgeri</italic>. The velar bar was reconstructed as a single continuous element [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>], but it is composed of two opposing structures (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>g</italic>; pq, Mk); moreover, as described above, these were identified as the palatoquadrate articulating with Meckel's cartilage, with the palatoquadrate articulating to the ventral postorbital process. Hirasawa <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>, fig. 3<italic>b</italic>] reconstructed what is clearly the separate palatoquadrate (e.g. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>c,g</italic>, electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>b</italic>) as incorporated into the anterior margin of the otic capsule (also [<xref rid="RSOS170214C18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>]).</p><p>One of the two elements forming the putative lingual bar [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>] was identified above as the occipital (also [<xref rid="RSOS170214C16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>]), while the second element articulates to these occipitals, and is associated with the unusual anterior region of the vertebral column comprising narrow, rounded centra and more posterior vertebral elements. Centra are absent from the hagfish vertebral column ([<xref rid="RSOS170214C27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>]; present only in certain crown gnathostome taxa [<xref rid="RSOS170214C28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>]), and we provide a novel interpretation of this region, that it represents the region of the anterior vertebral column, the synarcual (electronic supplementary material). The presence of centra within the synarcual of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> is reminiscent of the synarcual in batoid chondrichthyans [<xref rid="RSOS170214C29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>].</p><p>Hirasawa <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>] also focused on the crown-like structure at the anterior chondrocranium, identifying this as a nasal capsule, comparable to embryos of <italic>E. burgeri</italic>. This comparison depends on identification of anterior and posterior transverse bars connecting the separate longitudinal bars of the crown to form a cage-like structure, as in the <italic>E. burgeri</italic> nasal capsule (stage 60 [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>]: fig. 3a). However, the transverse anterior bar does not exist ([<xref rid="RSOS170214C6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>], contra [<xref rid="RSOS170214C31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>]; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref>; electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>b</italic>), and there is no particular resemblance to the nasal capsule, which we identify as being paired and positioned more posteriorly to the rostral crown-like structure; instead this region is identified as a rostrum at the anterior chondrocranium and potentially an innervated sensory organ (electronic supplementary material). Cumulatively, these misidentifications [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>] strongly argue against <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> being a hagfish (also recently rejected by Janvier & Sansom [<xref rid="RSOS170214C32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>]), moreover, characters discussed above, in particular the vestibular system with its three semicircular canals within the otic capsule, suggest that <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> is a jawed vertebrate, with several characters shared with crown-group gnathostomes.</p></sec></sec><sec id="s4"><label>4.</label><title>Discussion</title><p>The characters described above establish <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> as a jawed vertebrate, contrary to recent suggestions by Hirasawa <italic>et al</italic>. [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>]. Apart from the mineralized vertebrae (e.g. centra), the most convincing new character arguing against a myxinoid and agnathan relationship is the third semicircular canal in the otic region of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> and associated ampullae. This is characteristic of jawed vertebrates (e.g. [<xref rid="RSOS170214C33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>]), but not extant agnathans (one semicircular canal [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>]) or extinct taxa (anterior and posterior canals) lacking the horizontal canal [<xref rid="RSOS170214C34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>–<xref rid="RSOS170214C37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>]. However, the isolation of posterior semicircular canals from the other canals in modern elasmobranchs [<xref rid="RSOS170214C38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>] is not seen in <italic>Palaeospondylus.</italic> Additionally, a potential endolymphatic duct can be identified via an opening into the duct (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F2">figure 2</xref><italic>b–d</italic>; electronic supplementary material, figure S1<italic>c</italic>), a character of extinct and extant craniates [<xref rid="RSOS170214C39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>].</p><p>Crown-group gnathostome characters in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> also include the elongate telencephalon, vertebral centra and possibly the ventral cranial fissure [<xref rid="RSOS170214C40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>], although the former may also be characteristic of the closely related stem gnathostome <italic>Janusiscus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS170214C20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>]. The precerebral fontanelle [<xref rid="RSOS170214C21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>] and the articulation of the palatoquadrate on the large L-shaped postorbital process on the lateral chondrocranium [<xref rid="RSOS170214C13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>] indicate a closer relationship with chondrichthyans. Certain Palaeozoic stem chondrichthyans have a postorbital process that includes a ventral contribution from the lateral commissure (processes of the otic region) to enclose the jugular vein [<xref rid="RSOS170214C14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>]. If this were the case in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>, the postorbital process would cross onto the otic capsule and run across the ventral cranial fissure. However, in the stem chondrichthyan <italic>Pucapampella</italic>, it is the postorbital process that extends ventrally to enclose the jugular canal (also in other taxa such as <italic>Cobelodus</italic>, <italic>Tamiobatis</italic> and <italic>Orthacanthus</italic> [<xref rid="RSOS170214C43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>]), more comparable to <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>. <italic>Pucapampella</italic> also possesses an otico-occipital fissure, which is lost in more derived chondrichthyans [<xref rid="RSOS170214C44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>]. Hence characters present in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> are also present in stem chondrichthyans.</p></sec><sec id="s5"><label>5.</label><title>Conclusion</title><p><italic>Palaeospondylus gunni</italic> has been a perplexing vertebrate fossil since Traquair first described it in 1890; here X-ray tomography provides new data and morphological characters demonstrating that <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> is a jawed vertebrate. Our interpretation of key jawed vertebrate characters in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> include three semicircular canals with a horizontal canal prominent in the vestibular system, the synarcual, and jointed elements of the mandibular arch (palatoquadrate, Meckel's cartilage). Moreover, multiple crown-group gnathostome characters are present (otico-occipital fissure (but also in ptyctodont placoderms [<xref rid="RSOS170214C45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>])), elongate telencephalon, and vertebral centra. Characters that associate <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> with chondrichthyans are a precerebral fontanelle, foramina for lateral dorsal aorta in the chondrocranium, and the articulation of the palatoquadrate to the ventral postorbital process.</p><p>This new analysis of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> strongly suggests that an assignment to the myxinoid (hagfish) stem group is based on misinterpretation of various characters [<xref rid="RSOS170214C12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>]. However, the absence/non-preservation of teeth, scales and fins continues to be problematic in determination of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> as a jawed vertebrate. Nevertheless, a number of acanthodian taxa, resolved as stem chondrichthyans [<xref rid="RSOS170214C40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>], also lack teeth [<xref rid="RSOS170214C46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>]. As well, Miller [<xref rid="RSOS170214C31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>] described maceration of the lungfish <italic>Lepidosiren</italic>, resulting in loss of the fins, girdles and branchial arches, comparable to post-mortem degradation potentially responsible for the absence of these elements in <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic>.</p><p>Also problematic with regards to a chondrichthyan association is the composition of the <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> cartilaginous skeleton that includes hypertrophied chondrocyte lacunae surrounded by mineralized matrix, previously interpreted as representing an early stage in endochondral bone development [<xref rid="RSOS170214C10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C47" ref-type="bibr">47</xref>], a type of bone found in bony fishes (Osteichthyes) [<xref rid="RSOS170214C48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>]. The presence of hypertrophied cells in chondrichthyan cartilage is disputed [<xref rid="RSOS170214C49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>], with mineralization characteristically only in the perichondral tesserae [<xref rid="RSOS170214C51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>]. Nevertheless, chondrichthyans are characterized by loss of bone [<xref rid="RSOS170214C48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>,<xref rid="RSOS170214C52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref>]; <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> also lacks bone and instead manifests an entirely mineralized cartilage in the endoskeleton, with matrix mineralization between and around the cell lacunae (interlacunar, perilacunar), clearly illustrated in details of tissue structure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="RSOS170214F1">figure 1</xref><italic>f,h</italic>). The fact that this mineralized tissue can be observed, and not perichondral bone, which normally forms in the connective tissue surrounding the cartilage, implies that the latter is indeed absent. As a stem chondrichthyan, <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> may mark the loss of perichondral bone, as well as dermal bone, as part of the overall loss of bone within chondrichthyans, including acanthodians [<xref rid="RSOS170214C48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>].</p><p>These novel characters and newly evaluated ones allow a more precise relationship of <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> to be proposed, that can be challenged with new data, or new imaging techniques directed towards these hypotheses.</p></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD1"><caption><title>Electronic Supplementary material - text</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf" xlink:href="rsos170214supp1.pdf" orientation="portrait" id="d35e1128" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD2"><caption><title>ESM Figure S1 Palaeospondylus gunni, Achanarras Quarry (Devonian), Scotland.</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="tif" xlink:href="rsos170214supp2.tif" orientation="portrait" id="d35e1136" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD3"><caption><title>ESM Figure S2 Palaeospondylus gunni, Achanarras Quarry (Devonian), Scotland.</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="tif" xlink:href="rsos170214supp3.tif" orientation="portrait" id="d35e1144" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD4"><caption><title>ESM Figure S3 Palaeospondylus gunni, Achanarras Quarry (Devonian), Scotland.</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="tif" xlink:href="rsos170214supp4.tif" orientation="portrait" id="d35e1152" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material"><title>Supplementary Material</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="SD5"><caption><title>ESM Figure S4 Palaeospondylus gunni, Achanarras Quarry (Devonian), Scotland.</title></caption><media mimetype="application" mime-subtype="tif" xlink:href="rsos170214supp5.tif" orientation="portrait" id="d35e1160" position="anchor"></media></supplementary-material></sec></body><back><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>We thank Paul Tafforeau (European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France) for his help with the scanning and reconstructing the data, as well as Jürgen Kriwet and Gerlinde Kaineder (University of Vienna), Farah Ahmed and Amin Garbout (NHM, London) for access to three-dimensional rendering programmes and computer facilities. Emma Bernard (NHM, London) is thanked for access to <italic>Palaeospondylus</italic> specimens.</p></ack><sec id="s6"><title>Data accessibility</title><p>Data files, including movie through individual slices, can be found at the NHM Data Portal (<uri xlink:href="http://data.nhm.ac.uk/dataset/palaeospondylus">http://data.nhm.ac.uk/dataset/palaeospondylus</uri>).</p></sec><sec id="s7"><title>Authors' contributions</title><p>Z.J., C.P., M.M.S., K.T. and S.S. conceived of the study; C.P. carried out CT<sc>vox</sc> analysis and prepared the figures; S.S. carried out the synchrotron analysis (France); T.S. carried out the CT-analysis (Australia); Z.J., C.P., M.M.S. and K.T. drafted the manuscript and carried out the revision. All authors gave final approval for publication.</p></sec><sec id="s8" sec-type="COI-statement"><title>Competing interests</title><p>We declare we have no competing interests.</p></sec><sec id="s9"><title>Funding</title><p>Z.J. and K.T. are funded by an Australian Research Council Discovery grant no. DP110101127; K.T. is funded by an Australian Research Council QE II Fellowship. Synchrotron scanning was funded by the ESRF (proposal EC690 and inhouse beamtime). S.S. was supported by a young-researcher grant from the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet, 2015–04335). 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