ChansonRolandV7, Istex, Corpus, bibRecord, 001548

An Experiment On the Metrics of Arabic Oral Poetry

Identifieur interne : 001548 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001547; suivant : 001549

An Experiment On the Metrics of Arabic Oral Poetry

Auteurs : Abderrahman Ayoub ; Bridget Connelly

Source :

Arabica [ 0570-5398 ] ; 1985.

RBID : ISTEX:1D75F28DE34A0CAFE4827A37F459DC538E1E5E61

English descriptors

Entity :
- org : Congress, General Egyptian Book Organization, University of Texas.
- pers : A. H. Hawwas, A. R. Abnoudy, Abd El-Hamid, Abu Zeyd, Albert Lord, Amin Muklis, B. Connelly, Banu Hilal, Bose, Equation, Giovanni Canova, Jaber Abu, James Monroe, James T. Monroe, Jihad Racy, Karel Petracek, Kristina Nelson, La Ceste, La Poesie, London School, Michael Zwettler, Monroe, P. Cachia, Pierre Cachia, Professor, Recorder, Rizq, Robert Culley, S. Pantucek, Simon Jargy, Susan Slyomovics, Tahar Guiga, Time Unit, Zwettler.
- place : Basra, Berkeley, Cairo, Egypt, Hammamet, Los Angeles, Tunis.
Teeft :
- Albert lord, Arabic, Arabic poetry, Assistant professor, Basic time unit, Basic unit, Basic vocal time, Basic vocal time unit, Brother hasan, Chart recorder, Chart recorder datum, Chart recorder graph, Classical arabic metre, Classical metre, Complex association, Connelly, Couplet, Czech scholar, Egypt today, Egyptian rebab poet, Elongation, Epic song, Equal number, European folk epic, First hemistich, First line, Hemistich, Hemistichs, Identical syllabic quantity, Important meaning, Instrumental interlude, Instrumental music time, International folk music council, Introductory, Introductory line, Karel petracek, Kristina nelson, Loudness processor, Mathematical relationship, Metre, Metric, Metrical, Metrical principle, Metrical structure, Metrically chaotic, Musical line, Musical time, Oral composition, Oral poetry, Oral style, Oral text, Original language, Overall execution time, Phonetic transcription, Phrasing unit, Poetic form, Poetic text, Precise measurement, Quantitative disequilibrium, Quantitative regularity, Rebab, Rebab poet, Recapitulative table, Regularity, Rhyme word, Rhythmic irregularity, Rhythmic regularity, Right guidance, Sayyid, Second hemistich, Second syllable, Simon jargy, Sirat ban hildl, Solo voice, Stable factor, Syllabic, Syllabic quantity, Syllable, Syllable count, Syllable elongation, Synoptic chart, Time unit, Tonal base pitch, Tonal center, Tunis, Tunis manuscript, Vocal duration, Vocal elongation, Vocal quantity, Vocal time.

Url:

https://api.istex.fr/ark:/67375/JKT-BSN4VGJ7-1/fulltext.pdf

DOI: 10.1163/157005885X00434

Links to Exploration step

ISTEX:1D75F28DE34A0CAFE4827A37F459DC538E1E5E61

Le document en format XML

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				<contrib contrib-type="author">

					<name>

						<surname>Ayoub</surname>

						<given-names>Abderrahman</given-names>

					</name>

				</contrib>

				<contrib contrib-type="author">

					<name>

						<surname>Connelly</surname>

						<given-names>Bridget</given-names>

					</name>

				</contrib>

			</contrib-group>

			<pub-date pub-type="epub">

				<year>1985</year>

			</pub-date>

			<volume>32</volume>

			<issue>3</issue>

			<fpage>323</fpage>

			<lpage>359</lpage>

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				<copyright-statement>© 1985 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands</copyright-statement>

				<copyright-year>1985</copyright-year>

				<copyright-holder>Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands</copyright-holder>

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		<p>AN EXPERIMENT ON THE METRICS OF ARABIC ORAL POETRY BY ABDERRAHMAN AYOUB AND BRIDGET CONNELLY Difficulties seeing beyond the structures of Classical Arabic poetry of the high, literate tradition have long blinded scholarly ears to the formal realities and aesthetics of oral, popular poetry. A sort of print-bound myopia has caused us to cling to the 16 metres devised by Khalil b. Ahmad al-Farahidi (8th c.) to describe the oral poetry of the Jahiliyya 1 and subsequently made the canon of all Arabic poetry. While this system of metrics may work to describe the prosody of written court poetry composed in the literary, inflected idiom, it severely restricts our understanding of orally composed poetry and, indeed, misrepresents and obscures the prosodic principles of oral poetry. Our certainty that this is the case arises from several experiments we have been conducting on the poetry of Sirat Bani Hildl, the texts of which exist in several forms: (1) manuscripts dating from the early 19th century; (2) printed editions; and (3) oral versions performed by musician-poets in Egypt and other parts of the Arab Middle East today. Scholars approaching the manuscripts and printed editions of this epic are beset with problems. In its written forms, the fictive chronicle of the migrations of the Hilali tribe has never really been understood. The long narrative unfolds in poetry interspersed with prose summary. The language of the texts has no vocalization, as is the case with normal Arabic script. Consequently, we don't know how to pronounce the words. This presents obvious for any discussion of the metre of the poetry. The texts seem metrically chaotic with no organizing principle immediately apparent. Few scholars have attempted to study the epic's formal features, 1 On the orality of pre-Islamic poetry, see James T. Monroe, «Oral Composition in Pre-Islamic Poetry,» Journal of Arabic Literature III, 1972; and Michael N. Zwettler, The Oral Tradition of Classical Arabic Poetry (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1978).</p>

		<p>324 generally limiting their inquiries to thematic matters 2. Two Czech scholars are the exception. The 1970 doctoral dissertation in German of S. Pantucek, primarily a thematic analysis of the narrative structure of the epic, devotes a brief section to the formal, prosodic structure of the poetry 3. Pantucek asserts that for the most part, the poetry remains in the realm of Classical Arabic poetic norms (p. 124). He sees a consider- able portion of the verse as written in Tawil, although sometimes «confusions in long and short syllables occur or the syllable count doesn't conform» (p. 124). He finds various other Classical metres, including rajaz, kdmil, wäfir, ramal, basit; but in each type of line he points out many deviations. The metre, in fact, he says can vary from one hemistich to another within a line and within a series of lines in a given verse passage. In short, the Classical metres are «defective.» For Pantucek, this proves that SBH is «a folk work which strives to go beyond the trajectory of traditional metrics» (p. 125). While we agree with his conclusion, we fear this doesn't really tell us much about the metrical structure. It remains bound by the methodology delimited by Khalil! metrics. And as another Czech scholar, Karel Petracek 4 has suggested, it implies the idea that SBH poetry was originally written in Classical Arabic metres and language. Since Classical metres presuppose rriib (the inflection typical of Classical Arabic grammatical structure), scholars like to posit that the original language and metre somehow « degenerated. » 5 Petracek objects to this notion on several grounds, pointing out that dialects cannot form a linguistic substratum for Classical Arabic metre and that dialect features are a large element of the poetry in the Beni Hilal texts. He goes on to demonstrate that the prose sections of SBH have fewer dialect features than the poetry in the printed editions he has analyzed. Why? for the simple reason that redactors couldn't classicize it so easily; changing the linguistic form of the poetry would have necessitated changing the prosody. Petracek further argues that the number of popular linguistic features is too great to justify any assumption that the 2 For a bibliography of Bani Hilial scholarship, the reader may refer to Giovanni Canova, «Gli Studi sull'epica popolare araba, in Oriente Moderno, LVII, pp. 311-326. 3 S. Pantucek, Das Epos über des Westzug der Banu Hilal, Academia, Prague, 1970. 4 Karel Petracek, «Die Poesie as Kriterium des arabischen 'Volksromans'», in Oriens, XXIII-XXIV, pp. 301-305, 1970-71. 5 For example of this «degenerative theory» of Bani Hilal prosody, and the prosody of other Arabic siyar, see the Encyclopaedia of Islam articles on the individual sira, such as Antar, Baybars, Al-Amirah Dhat al-Himma, Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan.</p>

		<p>325 poetry sections were «later» rendered into the colloquial language, and he posits that the language of the poetry is the original language of the sira, the prose having undergone editing and classicization. This proves, for the Czech scholar, that SBH is of oral genesis and that it was transmitted orally before it was ever written down. The co-authors of the present paper conducted similar experiments in their analyses of various versions of SBH, Connelly attempting to demonstrate oral composition by application of the Parry-Lord theory and Ayoub departing from the Khalili methodology in an attempt to uncover the metrical principle of SBH's verse language. Experiments with Written Te.xts Connelly's essay in the Hammamet conference papers6 analyzes the style in several printed editions of SBH as characteristic of oral- formulaic diction. Repetition, of course, is the salient stylistic feature of SBH in all its various forms, and the one most faulted by scholars'. Connelly attempts to demonstrate, through a comparative argument that the very repetitions of both phrase and incident, the very redundancies and recapitulations, the very cyclical composition that critics deplore as bad writing, the very language of the text, all point to a work which was originally composed orally by a traditional bard in performance. Her paper attempts to show how highly stylized, lexically economical language, marked by parataxis, nonperiodic enjambement, parallelism and pleonasm, the characteristic signs of oral style the world over, describe the language of SBH. While editing the Tunis manuscript of SBH, Ayoub found the same, identical repeated phrases Connelly demonstrated to be oral formulas, the building bones of oral poetic adding style 8. The poetry in chapter IX of the early 19th-century Tunis manuscript is contained in 67 poems interspersed with summary prose. The poems are of 6-42 lines each, 6 B. Connelly, «Sirat Bani Hil � l and the Oral Epic Technique of Poesis,» Cahiers des Arts et Traditions Populaires, Tunis, in press. 7 See for example the otherwise excellent study by Faiq Amin Muklis, Studies and Comparison of the Cycles of the Ban � Hil � l Romance, Doctoral dissertation, London School of Oriental and African Studies, 1963-64. 8 For an elucidation of «adding style» as a characteristic feature of oral poetry in general, see Albert Lord, Singer of Tales, Athenum, 1960. Monroe and Zwettler apply the concept to Arabic pre-Islamic poetry, op. cit.</p>

		<p>326 totalling 1200 lines of poetry in all. Endeavoring to analyze and describe the poetry, Ayoub grouped all of the poems with the same rhyme together, broke the lines into syllables and counted them, trying to see if they had a common « metre. » As Table I shows, poems united by end- rhyme (1) do not have the same metre and (2) do not have identical syllabic quantity in each hemistich of a given line, as is required in Classical metrics. Next, he grouped together all the poems with an equal number of syllables per hemistich and per line (for example, a 22-syllable line divided into hemistichs of 11/11; or of 28, divided 14/14; etc.; see Table II). These too, as a glance at Table II will illustrate, demonstrate most complex irregularities. The sequence of syllables composing a line is not regular. For example, in a 26-syllable line ( 1 .8-A. 1 6), the first hemistich is composed: Such irregularity in the rhythmic division of syllables introduces an apparent rhythmic disequilibrium between the two hemistichs of a given line. This derives, we believe, from the absence of regular metrical unity, or taj'ila. As we were to discover, looking for metrical feet as constituent elements of oral poetry is a dead-end approach and leads to few conclusive results. It is wrong, for such an undertaking projects Classical norms on a poetic body that has its own aesthetic laws. No quantitative regularity exists, neither does rhythmic regularity of syllables within a line or in the sequence of lines making up the poem as a whole. The assiduous seeker of Classical metre may find one or two lines which demonstrate Khalili metrics of a given taf ila repeated two or three times per hemistich. This may be by accident. The coincidence may also be attributed to the fact that the singer-poet has borrowed a couple of formulas from Classical oral poetry. The syllabic, quantitative, and rhythmic regularity which characterizes Classical poetry, though not always canonically, becomes inevitable 9 On the amazing stability of formulas over time, see James Monroe, op. cit.</p>

		<p>327 irregularity in oral poetry. In other words, irregularity becomes regular- ity and regular in oral poetry. For example, the rhythmic irregularity that characterizes the two hemistichs of a single verse is stable; that is, it continues in all the lines of a poem of the type 13/13 or 14/14, etc. To recapitulate, a poem with lines constituted by an equal number of syllables contains at once: ( I ) quantitative regularity of syllables and (2) rhythmic irregularity between the syllables. What then constitutes the poetic form of this oral poetry? For even if most of the poems in our text, Chapter IX of the Tunis SBH ms., contain an equal number of syllables per hemistich, others do not, as for example those composed of 13/12, 13/14, 13/15 or even 17/23 or 9/13 (see the Recapitulative Table IV). We hypothesize that the source of irregularity and disequilibrium between hemistichs may be accounted for in the poems' original mode of composition. For SBH poetry is sung verse accompanied by a musical instrument, generally the rababa. The voice of the poem, the syllabic quantity of his words, and his instrument interact to fill out the line. This gives quantitative disequilibrium to texts which only exist in written form. They appear metrically chaotic, their measuring principle available only to the ear in performance 10. While this hypothesis needs to be verified by musicologists, linguistic features recurrent in the ms. text support it. Certain morphological forms, for example, serve to augment syllabic quantity and at the same time lengthen the rhythmic quantity of a line. Basically, and most notably, plural formations function this way. For example, where we should theoretically find *'arab (CV/CVC), we find °ar£yib (CV/CVV/CVC) (8-A.13); or *taltahib (CVC/CV/CVC) becomes tel5hib (CV/CVV/CVC) (8-A. I ) ; or *dukhkhdn (CVC/CVVC) is dakhdkhin (CV/CVV/CVVC) (24-A. I ). Reestablishing the usual, normative form, as the editors of many printed editions of SBH attempted to do, in no way establishes quantitative and rhythmic regularity within the lines of poetry. It merely violates the linguistic integrity of the original oral, sung musical text. Continuing to analyze the poetic production of our text, we come upon yet another difficulty, from the standpoint of traditional, Classical 10 This is frequently the case for oral epic song when it is reduced to written form. Bose demonstrates in «Law and Freedom in the Interpretation of European Folk Epics,» (Journal of the International Folk Music Council ID (1958) pp. 29-34.) how the song once reduced to text becomes utterly chaotic metrically.</p>

		<p>328 metrics. The introductory verse of a given poem does not coincide with the rest of the poem from the point of view of syllable count. A quick glance at Tables I and III as well as the two Recapitulative Tables IV and V shows that in only two poems do the introductory lines and the remainder of the poem's verses have the same number of syllables' 1. Studying the ensemble of introductory lines, we see that, with one exception (11-A.16), these opening lines have a greater quantitative regularity of syllables than the rest of the poem (e.g., 13j 12, 13/14, 1 4/ 1 3, 1 3/ 1 3, 1 2/ 1 2, 1 4/ 1 2, 1 2/ 14, 1 1 /1 1 ) . As one can observe on the Index of Introductory Lines (Table III), this regularity, perfect in certain cases, semi-perfect in others, seems to result from the use of certain formulas by the singer-poet. And of course, the moment that these formulas are identical or almost identical, the syllabic quantity of the lines tends to be equal, or virtually equal. Formulas like J&- L. (awwal ma nibda nusalli `ala-n-nabi) turning around a single idea, the eloge to the Prophet, comprise «whole-hemistich formulas.» 13 Such formulas have an equal number of syllables in each hemistich and a regular rhythm where they are employed: The second hemistich of an introductory line way also be recognized as a whole hemistich formula, the general theme of which is the beneficence of the Arab Prophet toward all those who pray in his name; it, of course, offers an identical syllabic quantity because of its virtual word for word repetition: See, for example, 11 There are nine types of introductory line from the point of view of syllabic number, whereas there are 24 different syllabic quantities in the ensemble of the rest of the poems. The two Recapitulative Tables compare the first nine types. 12 This quantitative regularity is particularly evident in two poetic pieces (33-A, 11.20- 21 ; 33-B, 11.1, 2, 3) One piece (33-B, 6-11) is constructed on the basis of two Khalil taf' � la fa' � lun, faa'laatun. In fact, if one were to take the time to hunt for it, Classical metres in all their multiple variants can indeed be found - irregularly. That is to say, it is not really the basis for the rhythmic formation of Introductory Lines. 13 On whole-hemistich formulas in selected printed editions of Sirat Bani Hilal, see Connelly, «SBH and the Oral-Epic Technique of Poesis,» op. cit.</p>

		<p>329 We may conclude then that the formulas dictate the rhythm of the introductory lines. The quantitative irregularity of syllables in the two hemistichs of a single verse results directly from the various syllabic quantities of synonyms substituted within the formulas. And the moment that formulas are above all idea, their metrical structure becomes secondary; thus their syllabic irregularity is irrelevant. The formulas then, as overall message, constitute and condition the form of the introductory lines as a sort of non-quantitative unity. Formulas give the rhythmic form, the prosodic form'4. This principle applies to the whole of the 67 poems in chapter IX of the Tunis ms. If we look to the second verse of the poems in our manuscript chapter, those that follow the introductory locutions, we will find them dominated by two basic types of whole-hemistich formulas 15. Since the epic narrative proceeds primarily through direct discourse between characters, the first formulaic locution introduces the speaker, applying an epithet of some sort to describe him; the second describes how the speaker feels as he speaks the lines of verse: 14 James T. Monroe also suggests in the concluding remarks to his «Oral Composition in Pre-Islamic Poetry» that formulas are somehow prior to metre. Theme and content give rhythms. Simon Jargy tells us that the first line of an oral poem, usually a song lyric in Jargy's work in the Levant, establishes the rhythm, melody, etc. that the poem as a whole will follow. See Simon Jargy, La Poesie Populaire Traditionnelle Chantée au proche-orient Arabe (Paris: Mouton 1970). According to Pierre Cachia, Egyptial mawwal poets conceive of their form in four-line units. Singers described for Cachia how they built murabba' on the basis of the last line, the «cap» (taqiyya) for which the first three lines of the quatrain are only the foil or the threshold. See P. Cachia, «The Egyptian Mawwal,» in Journal of Arabic Literature VIII, pp. 89 ff. 15 On the predominance of the q � la formula in printed editions of Sirat Beni Hilal, see Connelly, op. cit.</p>

		<p>330 Sometimes these formulas in the two hemistichs of the second line contain an equal number of syllables. Sometimes they have an irregular number of syllables. Yet other times their syllabic quantity is equal, but their rhythmic distribution different. Once such irregular syllabic distri- bution is established, it remains a constant throughout the poem. Thus, in poem 8-B.10, the whole-hemistich formula I breaks into syllables as follows: The number of syllables in the two hemistichs is equal, but their rhythmic disposition is different. This becomes an almost stable factor in all poems of the type 13/13, for example. We say an almost stable factor because the regularity of syllables may be disrupted in one or two lines and we see unequal hemistichs like 12/13 or 13/14, etc. A normal variation, this results from one word being substituted for another in the formula. For example, in 28-A.7, there are 13 syllables yl J5 L ) and in 7-B.11 only 12 syllables -% j yi L. yl ). The word al-amir CV/ CVVC) no doubt caused the variation. The presence in the second variation of the formula of the word 'ala (Ni) (CV/ CW) tempered the syllabic gap, however. This self-regulating process within formulas readjusts the quantitative disequilibrium of syllables. It is the rule in the whole of a given poem whose hemistichs have unequal syllable counts. When, for example, the syllable count varies two syllables (15/13, 13/15, 12/14, 11/13, 12/10, etc.), we find that the distribution of syllables is not always stable in each hemistich for the whole of the poem. But the overall total of syllables for a whole line made up of 2 hemistichs remains stable. This suggests that the expressive unit in this particular text is represented by the whole verse line. For example, in a poem of 28 syllables per line, as poem S-B.13, the division of hemistichs in 13/15 can easily become 14/14 or 15/13. It is then perhaps necessary to speak of the syllabic whole of a line rather than of the syllabic division into two hemistichs, and perhaps to hypothesize</p>

		<p>331 that it is the line, and not the hemistich, that constitutes the basic unit in oral poetry. To summarize, then, from this experiment with chapter IX of the Tunis ms., we discovered that the poetry of the ms. version of SBH contains a flexibly regular number of syllables (about 11 to 13 per hemistich). And that the second whole-line formula sets the syllabic quantity for the line and lines to come. We discovered through a mode of analysis informed by the Parry-Lord theory of formulaic composition adjusted to the specifics of Arabic language that possibly the purely syllabic count is what is important. For contrary to Classical prosody, no rhythmic regularity could be found within the line of poetry. We concluded tentatively that (1) the formulas seem to generate, by their varying thematic content, the rhythmic basis of the poem; and (2) the syllabic quantity, in its flexible regularity, appears to give the poem some kind of formal unity. The interaction of these two elements seems to define the manuscript poetry and it is these two elements that equilibrate the number of syllables in lines of a given poem. This conclusion appears to apply to all the poetry of chapter IX of the Tunis ms., as well as to all the poetry in the entire manuscript. We posited that it may be generally true of all written and oral texts grouped together under the rubric of Sirat Bani Hildl in that all these texts share a common formulaic language and technique of verse-making. Problems Resulting .1'roni Early Experiments Both these experiments suffered from the fact that we were working purely hypothetically and theoretically with texts- written texts of various vintage. While hypothesizing on the basis of the Parry-Lord analysis of oral style that our texts were indeed originally oral composi- tions (perhaps tampered with to varying degrees by editorial hands), we remained text-bound, and also bound to the march of syllables across the line on a printed page. Quantitative division of the line into syllables a la Khalili system didn't really work; it didn't really tell us very much. Application of the Parry-lord theory of oral composition to written versions of SBH may elucidate the nature and function of repetition in the language and narrative style of the textual tradition. It does, however, involve certain problems. Nineteenth-century manuscripts and printed editions of SBH demonstrate a far greater range and diversity of expressive forms than either the Homeric epics, the Song of Roland, or the Yugoslav guslar's tales. One major problem in applying the oral-</p>

		<p>332 formulaic theory lay in the definition of the term formula. According to Parry's original definition of the term, «a formula is a group of words which is regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea. » The poetic structure of a given tradition, its versification and metrical .system thus determine the nature of the formula and formulaic systems; and the length and rhythms of formulas correspond to the formal divisions of the verse. This definition has met with problematics in several oral literatures. Culley 16, treating the Biblical psalms, for example, omits the metrical structure from the definition of formula. Its definition, in fact, has been remodelled in many different language-based oral poetries. For, as ethnomusicologist George Herzog tells us, epic song attains and reveals a structure, which the poem as text does not have, through the musical performance itself and through the disposition of various musical motifs. The music and the poem thus form an integral unit. The text is nothing without the music which provides the medium in which the text is unfolded and carried along. Melody and text are in a complex association at the moment of execution when melody becomes a crucial factor in constructing lines and couplets. The poet-musician in performance adjusts his text to the tune, using such devices as contraction, particular accents, addition of syllables, ornamentations, and vocalizings, syllable elongations, etc. When a text and melody are separated, their exact relationship is difficult to rediscover, for it can be best apprehended by the ear 17. The art of the rebab poet in Egypt today who performs SBH demonstrates the close interrelationship of verse and music, voice and instrument that is living epic song intended for the ear. Indeed, looking at the transcribed text of any one performance of the rebab poets, the written product makes little sense. It is, like the manuscript and printed editions of SBH, so-called «defective» poetry. The poetic form of these oral texts once written down is often impossible to describe or under- stand. No principle is apparent apart from the sung performance. We were not entirely satisfied with the conclusions of our experiments on the Tunis manuscript. So we decided to test out whether the abstract conclusions we reached through formal analysis of written texts from the past century had any reality in the Bani Hildl poetry sung in performance 16 Robert Culley, Oral-Formulaic Language in ihe Biblical Psalms (University of Toronto Press 1967) pp. 29-30. 17 Georg Herzog, «Music of Yugoslav Heroic Epic Folk Poetry,» » Journal of the International Folk Music Council 3 (1951) pp. 62-4.</p>

		<p>333 today in Egypt. Connelly had recorded singers in Egypt in 1978 and had worked closely with 'Abd el-Rahman el-Abnoudy who has an extensive tape library of oral epic singers 18. Berkeley doctoral candidate Susan Slyomovics also had access to taped oral epic performances through 'Abd El-Hamid Hawwas, Head of the Oral Literature Section of the Cairo Folklore Archive. Thus was born the second part of our experiment. As we listened to tape-recordings of four different Egyptian Hilali epic singers, we discovered timing as a possible structuring unit for the language of the sung verse. Hearing the poets sing, it was, of course, impossible not to be aware of the epic primarily as music. As Bose observes in the case of European folk epics, the performance was marked by simple melodies of a few pithy motives and a copious text. Musicologists hearing our Egyptian singers all seem to agree that the words predominate over the music 19. Egyptian epic song also appears to conform more to the style of Finnish Kalevala singers with its free rhapsodic moulding rather than to the rigid moulding style of Parry and Lord's guslars 20, for it has fixed melody but free rhythm 21. Trying to focus on the words and verbal phrasing of the song as we heard it, we began to realize that each unit of sung verse was executed on a fixed time unit. So with a stop-watch, we timed the four poets voices, singing each line. We discovered that each poet seemed to have a basic time unit in which he sang a given « line. » The exact measure and time 18 For a description of the Hilali tradition as it still exists in Egypt today, see Abd el-Rahman el-Abnoudy, La Ceste Hilalienne, translated from the Arabic by Tahar Guiga (Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization 1978); the Arabic text is available in a series of newspaper essays which appeared in November, December, and January of 1977-78 in al-Mas � . For an analysis of the performing styles of three poets, see B. Connelly, «Three Egyptial Rebab Poets,» Edebiyat in press. 19 Oral Communication, Kristina Nelson, Assistant Professor of Ethno-musicology, University of Texas, Austin, and Jihad Racy, Assistant Professor of Ethnomusicology, University of California at Los Angeles. Both Nelson and Racy commented on the taped performance in question at the Berkeley Symposium on Middle Eastern Oral Literature, May 3-4, 1980. The conference proceedings and papers will be published in a forthcoming issue of Edebiyat. 20 Bose (op. cit.) makes this distinction between the two styles of epic song. See also Cvjetro Rihtman et al, «Traditional Recitation Forms of the Epic Chants,» Report on the 10th Congress of the International Musicological Society (Lubjana 1969) pp. 359-79. 21 For a discussion of these two styles of Arabic popular song - the fixed rhythmic vs. the fixed melodic - see Tiberiu Alexandru, «The Folk Music of Egypt» (Cairo Booklet with record 1967) and Amnon Shhiloah, «Le Poete-Musicien et la Création Poético- Musicale au moyen orient,» 1974 Year Book of the International Folk Music Council, pp. 52-63 ; and Simon Jargy, op. cit. p. 30.</p>

		<p>334 count appeared to vary from one poet to the other. The «line, » of course, is a literate concept, but also exists for our four poets as a real, phrasing unit as marked off by end-rhyme, vocal elongation, and instrumental music. The line unit with its end-rhyme, its frequent word-play (jinas/ paranomasia) serves a dual function. It orients the listening audience on important meaning while providing a pause, a phrasing unit signalled by the rhyme. The line unit pause also gives the performing poet a chance to breathe. Pitch and Loudness Processor Experiment on Orally Performed Versions To discover whether the vocal rendition of a line of poetry were indeed executed within a certain basic linear time frame, we processed on the Pitch and Loudness Processor sample lines from the recorded perfor- mances of four Egyptian musician-poets singing the Hilali epic. The Professor displays the signal of the musical line on a Chart Recorder. The instrument provides a very precise way of measuring elements of sound and musical relationship which usually cannot be specified but rather are «felt» during performance. In this instance, we used the machine in the UCLA Ethnomusicology Laboratory to measure the time of a «line» within a 5 percent margin of error. A four-line sampling, chosen at random on the tape, for each poet was processed, the test being run twice in an attempt to rule out error . Reading the Chart Recorder graph (see Graphs I-IV) from arrow to arrow gives the time duration of a performed line. Each graph square represents 10 millimeters; one second equals 25 millimeters on the graph. A falling squiggle line on the Chart Recorder indicates a voice pause where the instrument fills in a brief passage. We have written in a curve over such instrumental interludes and indicated «instrument.» We have also indicated syllable elongations with a superimposed curve and a phonetic transcription of the syllable in question. For all four-line samples from the four poets' performances reduced to the graph's linear sequence, the Chart Recorder indicated that: (1) the musical line, in its complex association of singing voice and stringed instrument, varies in its overall execution time; (2) the line also varies in the time of instrumental music duration; (3) some syllables are lengthened to varying degrees. 22 Our thanks to Professor Nazir Jairazbhoy for his assistance in using the equipment in his Ethnomusicology Laboratory at UCLA.</p>

		<p>335 We had previously ascertained that no real syllabic constant could be found from one line to the other (see Chart for a schematic syllabic distribution of the lines; refer also to the individual poets' texts given in phonetic transcription after each description). From these facts and from such a precise measurement of the various relational quantities making up a performed line, we were able to determine the basic durational time unit of the articulated text separate from its accompanying music. An equation emerged to measure the real time of purely vocal execution of each line. The equation is: Following are case studies which analyze the data provided by the Chart Recorder for the four poets whose performances were processed. Case I. Farouq Abdel `Aziz Solo rababa and solo voice. Recorded in Cairo, March 7-10, 1978, by B. Connelly. Sample composed of four couplets, made up of eight lines each. The couplet contains from 17-19 syllables. (See the following page for Arabic text and phonetic transcription with syllable count; for syllabic distribution, see Table VI.) . Farouq Abdel Aziz ' No. of Syllables I ma di bin nd bi da zad ni su' 9 'a na bi zin wi lu nur ba yin 9 II 'is ma' gu li dd fil 'a ja wid 9 sa ga' riz gi yis mab ni nd yil . 9 III ga fal him turn mnil 'a siy ya 8 ti gi lit hu mf fja 'a yib 9 IV dd ša kd min ba Id wi ha fly ya 10 wi lu dam 'I nd zil sa ba yib 9</p>

		<p>336 Farouq Praising the Prophet increased my zeal The Prophet is beautiful and has strong light Hear these words of mine about the nobles Brave Rizq called Ibn Nayel He has closed his tent since evening . Difficulties made his load heavy This one complained from hidden distress He has tears pouring down. Overall execution time for each verse varies from 6.4 to 8 seconds. (See the summary of Chart measurements on Table VII.) This includes instrumental music time and the duration of vocal elongations within the line. Rababa interludes within the couplets vary in the experimental sample from 0 to 1.9 seconds. This variability in duration seems to correspond with an internal adjustment of the line which affects its vocal quantity. By increasing or decreasing the instrumental play, Farouq regularizes the time vocal quantity of lines, even though the syllables are not constant from one line to the next. Farouq also uses vocal elongations of certain syllables to adjust the vocal quantity. In line 4, for example, there is no instrumental interlude. Here instead, vocal length- ening of two syllables occurs. These elongations measure on the Chart Recorder 0.4 second in the first hemistich, and 0.9 second hemistich. The elongation of two syllables (baldwi-troubles, and sa`ayib-difficulties) makes the overall length of the line conform to the Basic Time Unit of the other lines. The Basic Vocal Time Unit in the sampling of Farouq's poetry processed in the Pitch and Loudness Processor and read on the Chart Recorder is about 6 seconds per line. Mathematically, it suffices to subtract 0.32 second (the length of time it takes to articulate a normal syllable [-] [CVC or CC] multiplied by [ST] 2) from 6.8 seconds (the overall execution time of the line [OET] to arrive at the Basic Voal Time Unit (BVT) of 6.48 seconds which is about the norm for all the lines processed. Case II. Sayyid el-Duwi «Birth of Abu Zeyd» episode from SBH. Solo voice with three rebabas and drum. Recorded in Cairo by Abd el-Rahman el-Abnoudy. Sample composed of four lines (couplets) of eight hemistichs (8 lines) each. The line contains 17-21 syllables.</p>

		<p>337 Sayyid al-Duwi No. of Syllables I sa Id tin nd bi tab'an ti zaw wiz er rizg 12 hu mf li-l-bala' mus ha fi fa 9 II 'aw dd' hi td bi 'a la-I ma lik rizg 10 wu mu rd tu had rd-I sa ri fa 9 III riz gi bni na yil kan tag ya lu 9 ra jil hi du mJ ha fi fa 8 IV hdd sir sa nd ma ja bs 'i ydl 9 ya kin mu rd tu had rd-I sa ri fa 10 Sayyid The blessing of the Prophet increase the goods The burdens of the tribulation are not light I explain my speech about Prince Rizq And his wife Khadhra the noble Rizq Ibn Nayel was unhappy A man with light clothes Eleven years he did not get a child And his wife was Khadhra the noble Overall execution time of the line varies according to the Chart Recorder indications less than one second, with three linds executed in 12.6 seconds and one in 13.4 seconds. Applying the equation, again a basic vocal time unit within which the poet works reveals itself. For Sayyid, this consistent linear temporal unit is 10.2, considerably longer than Farouq's Basic Vocal Time of 6.48 seconds. Though instrumental interludes occur within the lines of this sample, the passage are not long enough to function as Farouq used them to adjust the lines' vocal quantity. Vocal lengthening, however, is a highly developed factor and provides lines with their durational unity. The lexemes Sayyid elongates are those which convey important meaning. Analyzing the Chart Recorder data more closely, we observe in line 1 a lengthening of the second syllable of humuli (my burdens) to 1.9 seconds.</p>

		<p>338 Normal syllabic time is .40 second. This elongation serves to underscore important meaning, for the theme of the episode is the heavy burden of circumstances engendered by the birth of a black baby to white parents, a baby who will grow up - as everyone knows - to become the great hero Abu Zeyd al-Hilali. As Sayyid performed the line, OET is 12.6 seconds, IMT is 2 seconds, ST is 0.40 second, all of which derives a Vocalic Time (VT) of 10.2 seconds, the time unit which is standard for the other three lines of the sample. The reader may refer to (1) the phonetic transcription of Sayyid's sample lines with their syllable distribution on the following page, and to (2) the summary chart of the mathematical relationship of the various components making up a line (Table VII). Syllabic lengthening of the word humi7tin the second hemistich serves not only a semantic function, but also to balance out the two hemistichs of the line quantitatively. Hemistich-a has 12 syllables, while hemistich-b has only 9. The reason for this is that in the first hemistich, Sayyed used the word tab'an (of course), which adds little semantic content while giving the hemistich 12 syllables instead of 10. To balance the extra syllables, and give the illusion that the lines are quantitatively equal, the poet elongated the second syllable of humuli in the second hemistich. If the word tab'an had been omitted, ( I) the line would have had 19 syllables like lines 2 and 3 of the sample, and (2) there would have been less elongation of humuli. If tab'an is omitted OET becomes 12.6 minus .32 = 12.28. New OET 12.2 minus MT 2.0 = 10.2, the Basic Vocal Time Unit of all subsequent lines. Continuing to interpret the Chart Recorder graph of Sayyid's per- formance, Instrumental Music Time in line 2 is a bit less than in the first line (refer to the Synoptic chart, Table VII), 1.6 seconds here as opposed to 2 seconds. OET equals 12.6 seconds again. Minus the Musical Time, the vocal time is 11 seconds. Two Vocal elongations occur; khitabi (my speech) in the a-hemistich, and muratu (his wife) in the b-hemistich. Following the Equation adopted, we subtract the Syllabic time of the two words from the Overall Execution Time minus the Musical Time: 12.6 OET - 1.6 IMT - .80 ST = 10.2, the Basic Vocal Time Unit for the entire sample. Here again the two lexemes elongated stress the poem's semantic level. Line 3 contains three vocal elongations, all on words introducing Abu Zeyd's father: bni nayil (sons of Nayil), kdn (was), rajil (brave man). OET for the line's 17 syllables is 13.4 seconds, of which 2.2 seconds are Musical Time. Applying the formula: OET 13.4 - MT 2.2 - ST .80 = BVT 10.4.</p>

		<p>339 The vocal elongations in line 4 are also three: sani (didn't bring), murdtu (his wife). OET 12.6 - MT 1.4 - ST .96 = 10.2. Case III. r Singing the «death song of Khafaji `Amr.» Recorded by A. H. Hawwas. Solo voice accompanied by orchestral instruments. Sample of four lines, composed of 17-25 syllables per line. See following page for text and translation. Sa'd No. of Syllables I yum rih li ti-I 'fm ya ma ba ka dur gam 11 I al bi di-1 la ya li ma dd wi-1 lil ba 'a dur gdm II 'a la fin ya 'd mir mi sd fir 9 sa yib las tab li wil hil fih 8 III 'a sa di-s sa wa hil ma 9a 8 wa la 'dd li nd hal fih 7 IV fi-I gar bi fa ris wi sam muh er ri jal ha 11 fi 14 wis sa 'i ti-I bar bi yit °al lib ka md dur gam 13 ** ya 'al bi zid wi-m da � ga m � la mu ham mad 12 na bi yul hu d � n � r � ma l � h wa-b n � r 11 Sa'd The day the tribe journeyed, O how he wept durgam He said, fair nights have passed and the night has become a time of misfortune. Whither do you travel Amir, you have left the stable with the horses in it He headed to the coasts, we no longer have an heir in him In the west there is a knight, the men named him Khalifa In time of war, he moves like a lion. Overall execution time varies from 17.64 to 20 seconds. Instrumental</p>

		<p>340 interludes range from 3.0 to 3.6 seconds, which in no way counter- balances the 10-syllable gap between lines. Sa'd, like Sayyid, uses vocal lengthening to adjust the vocal duration of his lines. The Chart Recorder shows a strictly parallel use of vocal lengthening in lines 1 and 4 in four different words, each of which contains meaning central to the poem as a whole. The words are: durghdnt (lion), durghdm, khanfi, durghdm, all of which function rhetorically as , jinds 23. Calculating the vocal elongations for the various lines according to the equation established indicates that a basic vocal time unit of 14.2 is operative. See the synoptic Chart of Chart Recorder data for the mathematical relationships (Table VII). Vocal lengthening occurs (1) on the final syllables of the lines, the rhyme fih, and (2) twice within each hemistich. Such an elaborate pattern of voice lengthenings serves to establish rhythmic regularity within the line, while stressing important meaning. The poet elongates the rhyme words, which are, of course, puns and predict the death of Khafaji 'Amir. Lines 2 and 3 have an identical execution time for their 17 syllables each. Equation applied to lines 3-4: 17.64 OET - 3 IMT - .64 ST = 14 seconds for the Basic Vocal Time. The equation for line 1 is: 18.08 OET - 3.2 IMT - .64 ST = 14.2 BVT; for line 4: 20 OET - 3.6 IMT - 2 ST = 14.4 BVT. Case IV. Jaber Abu Husseyn «The Birth of Abu Zeyd.» Recorded by A. R. Abnoudy, Akhmim, 1973. Solo voice accompanied by solo rababa played by singer's brother Hasan. Sample composed of 5 lines with 24 to 27 syllables each. Jabir 23 For a detailed analysis of the art of jinas amonst Egyptian rebab poets, see B. Connelly, «Three Egyptian Rebab Poets,» op. cit. See also P. Cachia on paranomasia in the Egyptian mawwal (op. cit.).</p>

		<p>341 III qad ha ba 'ab dun 15 yu sal li 'a lan na bi 13 ta ha el ha bib ar ra sul al mu ha jir 12 IV ba' di tam ji di fi ja ma li mu ham mad 12 'is ga li 'as 'd ri 'i dd kun ti sa tir 12 V gan na-I fa ta Riz qi-s sa il' 'ib ni na yil 12 1ay ya mi wal dun ya la ha gus ni ja yir 12 (cf. graphique p. 342) My prayers and greetings to you, 0 Prophet The prophet of God his light from the grave is giving light The Prophet of Right Guidance, were it not for him we would not known right guidance. He cut down the enemy with sharp sword The slave erred who did not pray to the Prophet He is the dear messenger of the sanctuary After my madih on the beauties of Muhammad Heed my poetry if you are smart He sang, the lad, the brave Rizq ibn Nayel My days and my world they have Judgment nearing. Overall execution time varies from 13.4 to 21.12 seconds; instrumental music time from 4 to 6 seconds. Computing the Chart Recorder data, one finds Jaber using a Basic Vocal Time Unit of 10.6 seconds in lines 2, 3, 4, and 5 (see the synoptic chart, Table VII). The first line of the sample, however, does not conform to the following lines. It contains three vocal elongations: taslimi, ydnabi, näyil. These lexemes in the first line partake of the religious register characteristic of religious introductory formulas; and, as Kristina Nelson 24 has pointed out, Jaber characteristically uses the tajwid features of Koranic recitation style when treating religious thematic matter. Thus the vocal quantity of line 1 is greater than the following lines (13.7 seconds as opposed to 10.6 seconds); its length 24 Oral communication to B. Connelly.</p>

		<p>342</p>

		<p>343 untypically derives from vocalizing lexemes that are semantically non- functional. Along with vocal lengthening, Jaber uses Instrumental musical inter- ludes as the dominant factor to balance two out of five verses. The Instrument plays more than once within the same line. For example, lines 2 and 3 contain no vocal elongations, but several instrumental interludes during voice pauses. Perhaps the fact that Jaber is a very elderly man accounts for the greater use of instrumental play and the relatively few vocalizations. He is the only one of the four poets who is not accom- panying himself, but rather leaves the rababa to his brother Hasan. Analysis of the Chart Recorder Data: Line 2, with 27 syllables, has an overall execution time of 16.6 seconds. Three rebaba interludes take up 6 seconds in toto. The Basic Vocal Time may then be calculated at 10.6 seconds (16.6 OET - 6 MT = 10.6). Line 3 has 25 syllables executed in a line whose overall time is 14.6 seconds, of which 4 seconds are instrumental play. Thus, the vocal temporal duration is again 10.6 seconds (14.6 OET - 4 IMT). Line 4 contains three vocal elongations taking a total of 0.96 seconds, it has 24 syllables and a 15.4 second overall execution time, the instrument takes up 4.2 seconds. The formulaic calculation to determine purely vocal time (15.4 OET - 4.2 IMT - .48 ST = 10.8 VT). Line 5, also composed of 24 syllables, is executed in 13.4 seconds overall. The word Niiyil is elongated as both a rhyme word and a pun conveying crucial meaning, while aligning the temporal quality of the line to the Basic Unit of Vocal Duration which is typical of Jaber's verse. According to the formula: 13.4 OET - 2.2 IMT - .32 ST = 10.6 BVT. Conclusions . . - The Pitch and Loudness Processor, with its very precise measure- ments, may well have taught us the obvious. The four Egyptian epic poets studied each has a standard time duration within which he performs a line of poetry. This standard unit varies from poet to poet, but appears to remain a stable temporal frame for a given poet. This Basic Time Unit may be a primary vocal structure within which the performing poet constructs lines. The performer could possibly be conscious of the temporal frame, using it as a regularizing device. The phenomenon might, on the other hand, be purely an intuitive, habitual 25 N � yel is the name of the tribe; it also means striving.</p>

		<p>344 one, based not on conscious intention or choice but on physiological capacities of breath control of individual singers 26. The breath capacity of a composing oral poet would surely be crucial in the determination of his style, particularly in the length of his lines. It is a feature of oral composition so basic that we overlook it; but perhaps it explains the basis of an axiomatic feature of orally composed poetry: the paratactic line. For enjambement - the run-on line - is a feature of written poetry which is of course uncomplicated by the structures of breathing in its composition. Different breath capacities of composing performer-poets may explain why line-length varies from one poet to another as well as why it remains a constant for any one poet. It may also explain why in Pre-Islamic poetry (which we believe along with Zwettler and Monroe to be orally composed), a given poet composes more in tawil, another in basit, or still another in ramal. The Tunis manuscript, typical as it is of the numerous other Bani Hilal manuscripts and printed editions, displays its poetry written in a binary format of two hemistichs to a line - the textual mode typical of all Arabic poetry. This indicates that the Arab concept of the phrase-unit appears to be a double structure of two paratactic units, each containing a complete thought and each a self-standing unit with no enjambement between the hemistichs. This staccato «adding style, » as it has been termed by Parry and Lord, is characteristic of oral composition and one of the «easiest touchstones to apply in testing the orality of a poem2'.» Research in oral poetry wherever it may be found around the world suggests that orally composed texts feature paratactic juxtaposition and coordination of lines and ideas rather than the hypotactic subordination marking written texts. The line of oral poetry then is generally defined as a thought unit with little or no enjambement. In the manuscript and printed editions of Sirat Bani Hildl, the hemistich is a thought unit; that is, the hemistich coincides with what would be termed a «line» in most oral poetries: it contains a thought; it is coordinated with the following hemistichs by parataxis; and little or no enjambement occurs between hemistichs 28. The binary unit visually set- 26 We are not in agreement on this issue. Ayoub argues that the Basic Time Unit is a conscious basic vocal structuring device used by poets, which becomes conscious by virtue of frequency of repeated performance-composition. Connelly prefers to view the stable temporal quality of lines as an intuitive schema rather than an intentionally established structure. We invite ethnomusicologists to study the living epic performance tradition in Egypt to help us resolve our disagreement. 27 Albert Lord, Singer of Tales (Atheneum 1968) p. 54. 28 See Albert Lord's Singer of Tales for a statement of the basic theory. Michael Zwettler discusses the nature of enjambement in Arabic oral poetry in his book (op. cit.).</p>

		<p>345 out in writing in the manuscript would be a couplet, or two lines of oral poetry. The epic narrative poetry performed by rebab poets in Egypt today most often conforms to the quatrain format (rhymed abab cdcd etc.), relieved by mawwals or an occasional qasida. Whatever the poetic form, the verses are chanted or sung to musical accompaniment. Musically, the lines are heard in pairs. The three Egyptian rebab poets observed by Connelly all use a tonal base pitch (about D on the musical scale). Lines are coupled for the ear by means of paired musical phrases: the first phrase ends in an unresolved fashion on a note other than the tonal center, while the second phrase resolves the tonal center by returning to it. The tonal base pitch thus serves as a cadential phrase announcing the end of a couplet. Arabic typographical conventions appear to reflect this primary musical structure of the poetic « line. » The early collectors of « pre- Islamic» poetry, the Basra and Küfa philologists who redacted the poetry of the Bedouin rawi into anthologies, possibly were preserving the musical structure of the verse couplet as heard in performance when they conceived of the line visually as a binary one composed of two paratactic hemistichs. The experiments reported in this paper, as our joint endeavor to uncover the metrical principle of Beni Hildl poetry, have concentrated almost exclusively on the language, the words of the poetic text. Departing from the premise of the primacy of the words, we attempted to measure the voice articulation of the poetic text, and discovered that poets use vocal elongation, pauses, and instrumental interludes in order to regularize their lines and adjust them to a basic temporal schema. We recognize, however, the inadequacy of separating music and voice, since the oral epic composition as it is performed is a unique marriage of the two. We recognize also the possibility of other significant unifying factors, such as the possibility of a stress beat, or the strong possibility that melodic formulas regularize the text. As a linguist and a compara- tive literature scholar by disciplinary training, we are aware of the need for specialized musicological analysis and an interdisciplinary approach to further research on Arab oral metrics 29. 29 Our thanks and recognition are due to two students who worked with us in formulating the experimental hypothesis upon which this paper is based - Dwight Reynolds, an undergraduate at UCLA, and Susan Slyomovics, a doctoral candidate at Berkeley.</p>

		<p>346 Table I . Syllabic Quantity of the Poems in the Tuni.s Manuscript</p>

		<p>347 Table I, continued</p>

		<p>348 Table I, continued</p>

		<p>349 Table I, continued syllabic measure is: -- Faculun</p>

		<p>350 Table 11 Tuni,v Manuscript Poeiiis Grouped by Syllabic Distribution</p>

		<p>351 Table II, continued</p>

		<p>352 Table III Syllabic Distribution of Introductory Lines in Tunis Manuscript</p>

		<p>353 Table III, continued</p>

		<p>354 Table IV The Ensemhle 4 Lines in the Tunis Ms. Recapitulative table of syllabic distribution</p>

		<p>355 Table IV, continued</p>

		<p>356 Table V Introductory Lines of Tunis Ms. : Recapitulative table of syllabic distribution</p>

		<p>357 Table VI Syllabic Distribution qf'the Experimented Samples</p>

		<p>358</p>

		<p>359</p>

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