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Digital libraries in the mirror of the literature issues and considerations

Identifieur interne : 000457 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000456; suivant : 000458

Digital libraries in the mirror of the literature issues and considerations

Auteurs : Alireza Isfandyarimoghaddam ; Behrooz Bayat

Source :

RBID : ISTEX:CFB51ACDA35C0B0B710A62904D741EF30C7032ED

Abstract

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review the literature of digital libraries DLs, explore some issues and indicate some considerations. The paper also demonstrates the current situation and orientation of research topics and priorities in DLs. Designmethodologyapproach Keywords such as DL research, DL evaluation, DL management, DLs, DL studies and so on were searched for on the web as well as in some leading databases, including Emerald, Proquest, SagePub, ScienceDirect and Springer. The search focused on three main categories in relation to DL literature evaluation or performance appraisal, management, and education. Findings The review demonstrates that a lot has been learned in a short time via DL studies. However, a number of issues are yet to be resolved. In other words, research in the arena of DLs is still growing and it is predicted that new horizons will emerge, along with a variety of issues. Research limitationsimplications The review does not claim to be comprehensive. Practical implications It is hoped that matters such as legal issues, social issues, standards, metadata, management of intellectual and digital rights and interoperability, not included here, will be discussed in future works. Originalityvalue The paper can serve as a roadmap of digital library research for researchers, designers and users.

Url:
DOI: 10.1108/02640470810921628

Links to Exploration step

ISTEX:CFB51ACDA35C0B0B710A62904D741EF30C7032ED

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<title>Introduction</title>
<p>The digital library (DL) is a hot topic and an exciting area for research, whether empirical or theoretical, because of its relative novelty and explosive as well as phenomenal growth (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b69">Saracevic, 2004</xref>
). However, despite its popularity and importance, few exhaustive literature reviews have been performed in the field of DLs as a whole, though some such as
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b18">Chen (2004)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b43">Jeng (2005)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b6">Bawden
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2005)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b88">Xie (2006)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b5">Bawden and Vilar (2006)</xref>
and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b23">Chowdhury
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2006)</xref>
have discussed several dimensions including usability, knowledge management, education, customer satisfaction and users' perspectives. It is worth noting that nearly ten years ago, as one of the precursory works,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b21">Chowdhury and Chowdhury (1999)</xref>
did undertake a broad literature review on digital library research. Nevertheless, it now seems to be necessary to conduct this kind of research again, since it can serve as a roadmap of current DL research for researchers, designers and users. Such a survey will also demonstrate the current situation and orientation of research topics and priorities. Hence, the present article aims to analyze the related literature, empirical and theoretical, and brings out the main themes and issues. Accordingly, it focuses on three main categories in association with DL literature:
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<label>1. </label>
<p>evaluation or performance appraisal;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>2. </label>
<p>management; and</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>3. </label>
<p>education.</p>
</list-item>
</list>
It is important to indicate that this categorization is based on the authors' standpoint which, in turn, has been formed according to the frequency of recent DL articles in these areas. In fact, the majority of articles retrieved were in relation to one or more components or aspects considered in the present article. On the other hand, paying attention to all the dimensions included in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b21">Chowdhury and Chowdhury (1999)</xref>
requires a very long article with very many references, which is not compatible with the aim of this study. Consequently, it is readily apparent that this review does not claim to be a comprehensive one, but it is nevertheless hoped that it will prove useful.</p>
<p>To carry out the study, keywords pertaining to digital libraries, such as “DL research”, “DL evaluation”, “DL management”, “DLs”, “DL studies”, “electronic libraries”, and so on were searched for on the web as well as in some leading databases, including Emerald, Proquest, SagePub, ScienceDirect, LISA and Springer.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Evaluation (performance appraisal)</title>
<p>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b68">Saracevic (2000</xref>
p. 366) indicated that “numerous research and practical efforts and large resources are expended on digital libraries and practice. Evaluation is not, by and large, a part of these efforts”. Yet, after half a decade, evaluation has been considered more. In this regard,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b23">Chowdhury
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2006</xref>
, p. 671) declared that “Although there were relatively few evaluation studies during the first period of development of digital libraries, this area of research has attracted significant attention over the past few years [particularly] the last five or so years”.</p>
<p>Reviewing evaluation efforts, regardless of theoretical efforts like
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b68 b69 b70">Saracevic (2000, 2004, 2005)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b54">Marchionini (2000)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b74">Shiri (2003)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b65">Reeves
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2003)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b13">Borgman (2004)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b14">Borgman and Rasmussen (2005)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b8">Bertot (2004)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b76">Snead
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2005)</xref>
and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b39">Hsieh
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2006)</xref>
, here four identified areas – usability, functionality, accessibility and quality – are debated.</p>
<sec>
<title>Usability</title>
<p>The majority of research on DL evaluation focuses on usability studies (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b88">Xie, 2006</xref>
). According to
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b43">Jeng (2005)</xref>
, usability is multidimensional and in the literature it has been used broadly and means different things to different people. It is not the aim here to debate usability concepts, but it is nevertheless helpful to summarize the various perspectives on the attributes of usability the form of
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_2630260606002">Table I</xref>
.</p>
<p>Usability is defined as “the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use” (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b41">International Organization for Standardization, 1994</xref>
). The aim of such an evaluation, based on
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b25">Dalrymple and Zweizig (1992)</xref>
and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b36">Hert (2001)</xref>
, is assessing how users react to and interact with the program as well as allowing the user to express personal impressions of the resource, such as satisfaction, utility, value, helpfulness, benefits, frustration, and self‐efficacy.</p>
<p>Among the usability studies that have been performed, some – like
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b83">Van House
<italic>et al.</italic>
(1996)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b12">Bishop
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2000)</xref>
and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b46">Kassim and Kochtanek (2003)</xref>
– attempted to understand users' needs, find problems and desired features and to assess overall user satisfaction. In these works, observing and interviewing users about design elements through the use of focus groups and satisfaction surveys has been applied. Using a comparative approach,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b15">Borgman
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2000)</xref>
evaluated the Alexandria Digital Earth Prototype for use in undergraduate education and compared experimental and control groups' tasks.</p>
<p>To introduce web‐accessible information resources – in particular digital libraries – within the UK Health Services,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b1">Adams and Blandford (2002)</xref>
conducted one usability research through in‐depth interviews and focus groups with 73 clinicians. They found that the poor usability of current library systems made it difficult to access specialized information and limited the use of information resources. Finally, they concluded that increased DL usability along with adequate training would increase perceptions of DLs as support for, rather than replacement of, their clinical expertise.</p>
<p>Some studies were performed by means of questionnaires. For example, the National Taiwan University Library utilized them to examine 1,784 users about usability (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b49">Lan, 2001</xref>
). It was found that main usability problems faced are in the areas “information architecture”, and “browsing and searching mechanism”. In addition, using a questionnaire and the criteria of “affect”, “efficiency”, “control”, “helpfulness”, and “adaptability”,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b61">Oulanov and Pajarillo (2002)</xref>
conducted a two‐phase study to compare the usability of City University of New York (CUNY) websites.</p>
<p>Among usability studies,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b81">Tsakonas and Papatheodorou (2008)</xref>
explore the concepts of usefulness and usability in the evaluation of an e‐print archive,
<italic>viz.</italic>
E‐LIS. The results demonstrate that several attributes of usefulness, such as the level and the relevance of information, and usability, such as easiness of use and learnability, as well as functionalities commonly met in these systems, affect user interaction and satisfaction. In fact, their work is related to open access DLs, area that can be treated versus commercial DLs.</p>
<p>Also, other methods used to do usability evaluation on DLs are heuristic (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b78">Theng
<italic>et al.</italic>
, 2000</xref>
), inspection (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b34">Hartson
<italic>et al.</italic>
, 2004</xref>
), data triangulation (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b79">Theng
<italic>et al.</italic>
, 2005</xref>
), testing technique (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b48">Krueger
<italic>et al.</italic>
, 2004</xref>
), and log analysis (Hessel and Burton, 2003; quoted in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b43">Jeng, 2005</xref>
). Furthermore, some researchers including
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b80">Thomsett‐Scott (2004)</xref>
and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b30">Felker and Chung (2005)</xref>
made use of a combination of above‐mentioned methods such as log analysis, heuristic, testing technique and focus groups.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Functionality</title>
<p>Functionality is defined as the extent to which the information and services of a DL perform the expected observations and provide the content that they are designed to provide. According to
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b9">Bertot
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2006)</xref>
, functionality testing determines the extent to which a DL, in whole or in part, is able to perform desired actions (e.g. basic search, multiple languages). Its objectives are:
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>assessing whether the DL actually works in the manner intended and provides the results it is meant to deliver; and</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>making comparisons between separate, comparable programs with similar goals (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b7">Bertot, 2002</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b10">Bertot
<italic>et al.</italic>
, 2003</xref>
).</p>
</list-item>
</list>
It is important to note that functionality is not equal with usability. In the opinion of
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b29">Dumas and Redish (1993)</xref>
, VCRs (video cassette recorders) may have high functionality since the feature works as it was designed to work, but they have low usability because people cannot use them quickly and easily to perform their task. Admittedly, this difference can be generalized to DLs.</p>
<p>Although the volume of published research on the evaluation of DLs has increased, little of it deals with functionality. Because of this, we can modify
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b69">Saracevic's (2004)</xref>
comment that everything about DLs is explosive, except one thing: evaluation using methods other than usability, or to be precise, multi‐evaluation methodology. Among the most notable authors to have debated the functionality approach in theory and practice we can refer to
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b37">Hill
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2000)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b115">Wallace (2001)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b110">Moen and Murray (2002)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b7">Bertot (2002)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b10">Bertot
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2003)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b34">Hartson
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2004)</xref>
and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b24">Clark (2004)</xref>
. Moreover, in a recent work on bridging the gap between what users want and what is available to them in DLs,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b89">Zabihi
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2006)</xref>
conducted a user‐oriented study so that users' suggestions for DLs functionality could be determined. As a result they categorized users' expectations in relation to “functionality of DLs” as follows:
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>the contents of the books and articles of a DL should be searchable;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>a DL should have links to other DLs;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>a DL should display all relevant materials to the searched item;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>a DL should display all available details about a searched item;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>users should be able to save their previous searches – users should be able to read other users' feedback about a DL item;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>the search engine of a DL should take users straight to the actual item that was searched for;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>a DL should classify materials not only by their subject but also by type, e.g. journals or books;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>a DL should send users e‐mails or SMS alerts notifying them when booked materials become available;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>all services offered by a physical library should be offered from a DL as well; and</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>a DL should have embedded help “prompts” that give guidance to users at relevant stages</p>
</list-item>
</list>
</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Accessibility</title>
<p>Here, it is not believed that usability and accessibility are equivalent. Accessibility involves making digital library content available to and usable by people with disabilities (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b59">Nadler and Furman, 2001</xref>
). As such, a DL should present its information and services in a manner that does not prevent any users with disabilities – visual, auditory, cognitive, learning and others – from using part or all of the content (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b9">Bertot
<italic>et al.</italic>
, 2006</xref>
). Alongside the above attitude, according to
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b5">Bawden and Vilar (2006)</xref>
, accessibility is considered as making everything immediately available and accessible to a wider community of users. Accordingly, it is suitable to have a look at the case of The Energy Resources Institute (TERI) (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b27">Deb and Kar, 2005</xref>
). TERI is an electronic library in New Delhi, India. TERI Electronic Library was created to provide access to online resources, online e‐journals, electronic documents and virtual resources. Furthermore, in TERI, electronic services like current awareness and alert services apart from establishing a Virtual Information Centre has further supplemented the Electronic Library. As a result of this project,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b27">Deb and Kar (2005</xref>
, p. 189) indicate that “the usage has become handier for the researchers and has helped in saving their valuable time. Library management has also become easier. Any addition to the existing resources is announced by e‐mail for user access”.</p>
<p>In general, accessibility evaluation, on the basis of
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b42">Jaeger (2002)</xref>
, aims at assessing how well systems allow users with disabilities to have equal use of information and services. In this respect, in addition to theoretical works mentioned above, little research has been done. For instance,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b1">Adams and Blandford (2002)</xref>
did a study of accessibility at a large London hospital. As a result, participants indicated that due to poor usability of the system and time‐consuming accessibility to information, remote and quality access to materials included is hindered.</p>
<p>Another accessibility research project was performed by
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b60">Neumann and Bishop (1998)</xref>
in which 1900 graduates were surveyed in association with Deliver. After three years,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b11">Bishop (2001)</xref>
again repeated this study but with 420 faculty members. Results from
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b9">Bertot
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2006</xref>
, p. 21) recommend four criteria for accessibility with their descriptions (see
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_2630260606003">Table II</xref>
).</p>
<p>In general, it can be said that increased accessibility may lead to the realization of more usable DLs. From what has been indicated in three above sections – usability, functionality, accessibility – it is concluded that most DL evaluation studies are largely usability ones. Researchers have been doing evaluation studies but almost unilaterally. In this regard,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b70">Saracevic (2005</xref>
, p. 6) emphasizes that: “There are no more or less standardized criteria for DL evaluation […] Thus, evaluators have chosen their own evaluation criteria as they went along. As a result, criteria for DL evaluation fluctuate widely from effort to effort”.</p>
<p>As mentioned earlier, we need a multi‐evaluation method so that different data relating to DLs to meet users' needs can be gathered and in fact, a right understanding from current situation to ideal one acquired. From the information economics perspective, information value increases with highly making use of it. Thus, this rule holds true regarding DLs. Hence, such a method can help designers and developers of DLs optimize these “electronic archives” (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b1">Adams and Blandford, 2002</xref>
). This view is compatible with
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b52">McClure and Bertot (2001)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b76">Snead
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2005)</xref>
, and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b9">Bertot
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2006)</xref>
that multi‐method approaches may offer the best chance and create a rich and robust evaluation methodology that can meet the needs of diverse user populations by combining functionality, usability and accessibility in the networked environment.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Quality</title>
<p>Providing high quality to users is another concern of researchers, though this has been given little attention in the related literature. In this regard,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b32">Goncalves
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2007</xref>
, p. 1435) indicate that “DL quality and evaluation is a very underpresented research area”. This is why, following previous theoretical works such as
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b68">Saracevic (2000)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b63">Poll (2001)</xref>
, and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b31">Fuhr
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2001)</xref>
and having regard to quality dimensions, they considered accessibility, accuracy, completeness, composability, conformance, consistency, effectiveness, efficiency, extensibility, pertinence, preservability, relevance, reliability, reusability, significance, similarity and timeliness. Accordingly, they paid attention to features like response time (with regard to efficiency), cost of migration (with respect to preservability) and number of service failures (to access reliability). In fact, posing the question “What is a good DL?”, they proposed a quality model for DLs to help designers of new DLs identify constraints and tradeoffs needed to ensure adequate quality, and set priorities that will help ensure desired levels of performance as well as desired collection characteristics.</p>
<p>One notable research work is that of
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b88">Xie (2006)</xref>
, in which some evaluation criteria, including collection quality, were applied and examined in the light of 48 subjects' viewpoints. Highlighting the view that “without a collection, a DL does not exist; without a high‐quality collection, a DL does not have much value”, about 77 percent of the participants discussed the importance of collection quality in general in evaluating DLs. Also, based on participants' responses, the criteria of quality of a collection can be divided into scope (40 percent), authority (38 percent), accuracy (35 percent), completeness (31 percent) and currency (25 percent).</p>
<p>As a concluding remark of the evaluation section of this article, we refer to
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b4">Barton (2004</xref>
, p. 138), who said that: “while the need for meaningful assessment of traditional library services is well established, the development of metrics and standards for performance measurement [evaluation] in the DL is less well advanced – it is fair to say that proven approaches to the assessment of the DL are still relatively new”.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Management</title>
<p>Although the concept of the digital library was first proposed as early as the beginning of the 1990s, they will become the gathering center and producer base of various information resources, the hinge for communicating among experts, librarians and readers, the navigator to discover, search and capture information and the modern institute to offer high‐level information services (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b90">Zhou, 2005</xref>
). As a result of such a development, libraries, librarians and managers of DLs are concerned about how the phenomenon of such libraries can be effectively managed so that they can not only meet the main mission of libraries to society and human cultural and scientific heritage, but also using available innovations provide the information life cycle from creation to dissemination with more speed, scope, currency, efficiency, effectiveness, quality and productivity.</p>
<sec>
<title>Digital library definition</title>
<p>In order to manage a phenomenon it will be helpful to provide a precise definition describing it. Having a look at some existing definitions (e.g.
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b45">Karvounarakis and Kapidakis, 2000</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b84 b85">Wang, 2003a, b</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b90">Zhou, 2005</xref>
, among others) it is clear that there is no agreement on this area, which in turn has created some challenges for managing DLs. In relation to the plethora of various definitions for DLs,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b72">Schwartz (2000)</xref>
indicates that there are about 64 formal and informal definitions in association with DLs within different texts.</p>
<p>However, one of the most frequently cited definitions of DLs published by the Digital Library Federation (1999; quoted in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b64">Raitt, 1999</xref>
) is as follows:
<disp-quote>
<p>Digital libraries are organizations that provide the resources, including the specialized staff [librarians], to select, structure, offer intellectual access to, interpret, distribute, preserve the integrity of, and ensure the persistence over time of collections of digital works so that they are readily and economically available for use by a defined community [audience] or set of communities.</p>
</disp-quote>
</p>
<p>In fact, this definition considers different aspects of DLs as an organization. Accordingly, elements such as specialized staff, information resources selection, structuring and organizing information, evaluation, distribution and preservation of information, economical dimension and, above all, community(ies) of users have been emphasized. When we have a look at related texts, it may be said that the above definition has been a base for studies done on DLs including management. Hence, in order to avoid prolixity some viewed and reviewed works can be compactly seen in
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_2630260606004">Table III</xref>
. The experience of managing a digital library – Monash University in Australia – reported by
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b38">Ho (2004)</xref>
exhibits a combination of some of the management issues mentioned in
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_2630260606004">Table III</xref>
.</p>
<p>Admittedly, DL management may encompass further issues like budgeting, financing, marketing, or to be precise, e‐marketing and so forth, but its literature needs to be enriched by time. Hopefully, in the near future this need will be met, and additional researchers will cover such managerial issues in their works. In conclusion of this section, the comment of
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b2">Arms (2002)</xref>
is worth repeating: “People, technology and administrative [managerial] procedures are intimately linked”.</p>
<p>In other words, it can be paraphrased that if managerial policies are made appropriately, related technologies are utilized optimally, specialized staff (librarians, computer specialists and human‐computer experts) are employed according to practices and procedures defined in general policies, and – finally – necessary useful instructional programs are offered to users, it is expected that quality and effective management cast a shadow over DLs.</p>
<p>As a matter of fact, evaluation – as mentioned earlier – can serve as a feedback mechanism for better management of DLs. In addition, instructional programs can contribute to this. This is why, in the last section of the present article, “education” using its related literature is reviewed.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Education</title>
<p>Because the field of digital libraries is relatively new as far as the history of libraries is concerned, and since some have related it to or set it against traditional libraries and their own skills, it is natural that several authors have written in association with education as well as some requirements for dealing with them. In this regard, Saracevic and Dalbello (2001; quoted in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b46">Kassim and Kochtanek, 2003</xref>
, p. 160) declare that: “Education for DLs is a complex proposition, in part because it involves so many layers of technology and at the same time so much that is new in creation, content, representation, organization, access, and use, and in social, legal, and cultural issues”.</p>
<p>In addition to some studies such as that of
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b50">Liu (2004)</xref>
, which investigates the state of education for DLs based on the review and analysis of the course syllabi offered in schools of the USA and Canada,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b109">Kovel‐Jarboe (2001)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b84 b85">Wang (2003a, b)</xref>
,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66">Rezaei (2006)</xref>
, and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b67">Saumure and Shiri (2006)</xref>
that debate on the role of DLs in e‐learning and a quality e‐learning system, we can categorize literature relating to education in DLs into “users” and “staff”; as
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b47">Kibirige and DePalo (2001</xref>
, p. 283) believe that “obviously accessing digital collection requires a different mode of access, equipment, and skills, for both library users and staff, in contrast to print and hard copy”.</p>
<sec>
<title>Staff</title>
<p>As indicated in the definition of DLs, one of the vital elements for the success and dynamism of DLs is specialized human resources, namely librarians. Paying attention to the governing approach in association with human resource management in traditional libraries, it can be said that such an approach in DLs seems to be necessary because the dynamic, changing, competitive environment has multiplied, considering specialized staff and managing their skills and competences.</p>
<p>It should be noted that specialized staff are not simply limited to librarians – including catalogers, indexers and archivists – but because of the nature of DLs, other fields such as information technology and particularly computer science are also involved (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b53">McCray and Gallagher, 2001</xref>
). For instance, computer scientists are concerned with the semantic interoperability a DL metadata standard affords in the very large internet information space.</p>
<p>In this respect, Pfeffer (1998; quoted in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b58">Mullins, 2001</xref>
) emphasizes the importance of people (staff) to organizational success and also argues that, as part of people‐centered strategies, it is important for managers to realize that all work is knowledge work, even if it appears to be routine. Part of taking all staff seriously is to recognize the opportunities to leverage knowledge and build capability and skill in all jobs, in all organizations. In fact, training librarians and preparing them to work effectively as well as properly in the new environment can contribute to the success of DLs.</p>
<p>When we consider the state of education – i.e. formal education in library science departments – for DLs (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b50">Liu, 2004</xref>
), it is apparent that the importance of training librarians and making them familiar with the theoretical and practical issues of DLs has been properly understood. Courses on the subject of digital libraries, but in the form of different titles like “Digital Library Foundations”, “Digital Librarianship”, “Digital Libraries: Technology and Policy”, “Topics in Computer‐based Information Systems: Digital libraries“ and so on, are offered.</p>
<p>Reviewing some related texts (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b55">Marion, 2001</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b28">Deegan and Tanner, 2001</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b6">Bawden
<italic>et al.</italic>
, 2005</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b90">Zhou, 2005</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b19">Chang and Hopkinson, 2006</xref>
;
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b20">Choi and Rasmussen, 2006</xref>
), it can be stated that in order to meet the job requirements of DLs in total, librarians should have or acquire the skills and features shown below.</p>
<p>Digital library staff should have the following 21 skills:
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<label>1. </label>
<p>formulation of search strategies;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>2. </label>
<p>evaluation of websites;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>3. </label>
<p>guidance and education of users;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>4. </label>
<p>integration of network resources;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>5. </label>
<p>cataloguing and organizing digital information;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>6. </label>
<p>visualization and digitization technologies;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>7. </label>
<p>designing user interfaces and portals;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>8. </label>
<p>analysis and interpretation of information;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>9. </label>
<p>project management;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>10. </label>
<p>OCR (optical character recognition);</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>11. </label>
<p>mark‐up languages such as SGML, HTML, and especially XML;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>12. </label>
<p>indexing and abstracting;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>13. </label>
<p>technologies of databases;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>14. </label>
<p>programming;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>15. </label>
<p>web technology;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>16. </label>
<p>familiarity with web search tools;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>17. </label>
<p>management of e‐publications;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>18. </label>
<p>information architecture (IA);</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>19. </label>
<p>information literacy (plus literacy of computer and network);</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>20. </label>
<p>metadata; and</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>21. </label>
<p>e‐metrics and evaluation methods of DLs</p>
</list-item>
</list>
The personal characteristics necessary for digital library staff are as follows (adapted from
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b90">Zhou, 2005</xref>
, with some modifications):
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<label>1. </label>
<p>
<italic>Compound knowledge structure</italic>
</p>
</list-item>
</list>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>This means that the knowledge of the digital librarians should not be confined to a single field. Instead it should cover varied subjects such as library science, computer science, some specific technologies, communication science and so on.</p>
</list-item>
</list>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<label>1. </label>
<p>
<italic>Keen information consciousness</italic>
:</p>
</list-item>
</list>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>be quick to respond to outside sources;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>be good at finding useful information;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>have the consciousness to offer information service actively; and</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>have the consciousness to add value to the information.</p>
</list-item>
</list>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<label>1. </label>
<p>
<italic>Excellent personality</italic>
:</p>
</list-item>
</list>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>innovation intention;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>high team spirit;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>high flexibility;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>good imagination and foresight;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>healthy innate skepticism;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>propensity to take risks;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>good interpersonal and negotiating skills;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>changeability (change management);</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>capacity to learn constantly;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>coping skills, especially problem solving;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>crisis management;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>work independence (autonomy); and</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>• </label>
<p>respect for professional ethics</p>
</list-item>
</list>
Admittedly, the skills suggested above are not exhaustive. Therefore, for further reading as well as more familiarity with the necessary competencies for digital librarians, it is recommended that the tasks and requisite knowledge and skills suggested by
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b82">Urs (2002)</xref>
are noted. Such an approach reinforces the observation of
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b35">Hastings and Tennant (1996)</xref>
that “DLs need digital librarians”.</p>
<p>Moreover, considering the view of
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b19">Chang and Hopkinson (2006)</xref>
that the “staff of DLs should be reskilled”, and the standpoint of Whitmell and Associates (2004; quoted in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b56">Missingham, 2006</xref>
, p. 266) that “libraries generally agree that staff need to be multi‐skilled with a board set of library and information management skills”, here a couple of studies are indicated.</p>
<p>At the ACRL 10th National Conference, in paper entitled “Digital librarian, cybrarian, or librarian with specialized skills: who will staff DLs?”,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b55">Marion (2001)</xref>
examined 250 online academic librarian employment ads posted during 2000 to determine the current requirements for technologically oriented jobs. A content analysis software program was used to categorize the specific skills and characteristics listed in the ads. The results were analyzed using multivariate analysis (cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling). The results, displayed in a three‐dimensional concept map, indicate 19 categories comprised of both computer‐related skills and behavioral characteristics that can be interpreted along three continua:
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<label>1. </label>
<p>technical skills to people skills;</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>2. </label>
<p>long‐established technologies and behaviors to emerging trends; and</p>
</list-item>
<list-item>
<label>3. </label>
<p>technical service competencies to public service competencies.</p>
</list-item>
</list>
In a recent paper entitled “What is needed to educate future digital librarians?”,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b20">Choi and Rasmussen (2006)</xref>
surveyed current DL professionals in academic libraries in the USA to identify their activities and skills and to detect any gaps in their training. Finally, their study had some implications for the design of DL education that meets real workplace needs. Also, in a literature review paper,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b6">Bawden
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2005</xref>
, p. 96) compared education and training programs in two countries, UK and Slovenia. They concluded as follows:
<disp-quote>
<p>We have seen that both formal education and continuing development training is adapting to cover aspects of the digital library environment, both in the UK and in Slovenia. This is happening as part of the normal process of the redesign of degree programs and of training courses. Digital library skills and knowledge – embodying conceptual, semantic, syntactic and technical aspects – are being “embedded” in existing courses, for the most part, rather than in entities labeled “digital library” […] It seems clear that there is general agreement that certain general topics are of importance: typology of resources and domain analysis; computer/network literacy and retrieval skills; analysis of information; user characteristics and behavior; consciousness raising and information literacy; new forms of metadata; etc. But there is considerable scope for choosing which of these to focus on, and how to present them. While it is not desirable to recommend, still less impose, a closely defined curriculum, some guidance might be helpful.</p>
</disp-quote>
</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Users</title>
<p>Another pillar which can be implied in the literature of DL education is users, including librarians, professors, teachers, students, researchers, and so on. In fact, users are the main component of information centers because the dynamism and survival of libraries in general is highly dependent upon users' welcome of and increased use of resources. In this respect,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b24">Clark (2004)</xref>
maintains that “for any given DL, users are the primary reason for being”. As information's value increases via making use of it, libraries are not expected to adhere to this rule. This rule is particularly more serious in relation to DLs because, due to changing carriers and the necessity of some skills relating to using information as well as navigating DLs, issues such as moving from a traditional environment to the digital atmosphere, computer anxiety, technophobia, etc., are brought to the fore. Therefore, it is suggested that DL managers consider a strong user instructional program (
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b3">Ashoor, 2000</xref>
) since this will serve as a key element in promoting the use of the DLs. In relation to this,
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b1">Adams and Blandford (2002)</xref>
posit that “training would increase perceptions of DLs as support”.</p>
<p>If managers of DLs act successfully on training librarians in the new necessary skills – debated earlier – they will in fact take a large step towards meeting a user education program because they will be faced by fewer challenges in providing users with new skills. Moreover, multi‐skilled librarians can explain themselves, as well as the importance of new information technologies, including DLs, more effectively (Whitmell and Associates, 2004; quoted in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b56">Missingham, 2006</xref>
).</p>
<p>According to
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b3">Ashoor (2000)</xref>
, “developing information literacy skills should be the main goal of the library's instructional programs”. Ashoor defines these as “understanding the tools necessary to conceptualize, retrieve, evaluate and manage information”. The most generally accepted definition of information literacy was offered by ALA (1989; quoted in
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b16">Campbell, 2004</xref>
): “To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information”. Furthermore, as mentioned before, professors and teaching faculty are among end users. The need to promote information literacy skills in these users includes enabling them to develop alternative methods of teaching and identify the variety of resources needed for teaching relevant, up‐to‐date knowledge. On the other hand, students, as a significant sector of users, should be proficient in information literacy skills in order to meet their teachers' or instructors' demands.</p>
<p>In short, in order to meet the educational mission of DLs which, in the long term, will lead to a tangible value added as well as increased use and productivity of such emerging organizations, managers of DLs, with the cooperation of librarians (i.e. specialized staff) and even expert users should hold a variety of workshops, seminars and short courses. Also, the development of computer literacy skills should not be neglected.</p>
<p>Finally, we can delineate a categorization of the digital library research discussed in the present paper in the form of
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="F_2630260606001">Figure 1</xref>
.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>From what has been presented in this article, one can conclude that research – empirical and theoretical – in the area of DLs is still growing, and it is predicted that new horizons will emerge, along with a variety of issues. Hopefully, legal issues, social issues, standards, metadata, user interfaces, information retrieval
<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1">[1]</xref>
, management of intellectual and digital rights, interoperability and other issues not included here will be discussed in future work. In conclusion, it is expected that research on the issues debated here will provide a better understanding for professionals, students, users, managers, researchers, developers and designers of DLs to make optimal decisions when dealing with them. Ultimately, it is worth remembering that investment in DLs, especially DL research, is important and necessary because it helps to highlight the unknowns of this emerging phenomenon which, in turn, can contribute to increased productivity as well as use of information, i.e. realization of better status for librarians and information professionals in the new changing sphere.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<fig position="float" id="F_2630260606001">
<label>
<bold>Figure 1
<x> </x>
</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<p>Categorization of digital library research</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2630260606001.tif"></graphic>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<fig position="float" id="F_2630260606002">
<label>
<bold>Table I
<x> </x>
</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<p>Attributes of usability</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2630260606002.tif"></graphic>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<fig position="float" id="F_2630260606003">
<label>
<bold>Table II
<x> </x>
</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<p>Criteria and their descriptions suggested for accessibility</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2630260606003.tif"></graphic>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<fig position="float" id="F_2630260606004">
<label>
<bold>Table III
<x> </x>
</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<p>Management‐related studies on digital libraries</p>
</caption>
<graphic xlink:href="2630260606004.tif"></graphic>
</fig>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<title>Notes</title>
<fn id="fn1">
<p>In this regard, see
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b22">Chowdhury and Chowdhury (2000)</xref>
and
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b26">Das
<italic>et al.</italic>
(2007)</xref>
.</p>
</fn>
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<app id="APP1">
<title>About the authors</title>
<p>Alireza Isfandyari‐Moghaddam is currently a PhD student at the Department of Library and Information Science at the Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch, Tehran, Iran. He is also a faculty member of the same department. Alireza Isfandyari‐Moghaddam is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: ali.isfandyari@gmail.com</p>
<p>Behrooz Bayat is currently an MA student in the Department of Library and Information Science at Islamic Azad University, Sciences and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran. He is also Registrar of Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch, Iran.</p>
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<title>Digital libraries in the mirror of the literature issues and considerations</title>
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<name type="personal">
<namePart type="given">Alireza</namePart>
<namePart type="family">IsfandyariMoghaddam</namePart>
<affiliation>Department of Library and Information Studies, Islamic Azad University, Hamedan, Iran</affiliation>
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<abstract>Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review the literature of digital libraries DLs, explore some issues and indicate some considerations. The paper also demonstrates the current situation and orientation of research topics and priorities in DLs. Designmethodologyapproach Keywords such as DL research, DL evaluation, DL management, DLs, DL studies and so on were searched for on the web as well as in some leading databases, including Emerald, Proquest, SagePub, ScienceDirect and Springer. The search focused on three main categories in relation to DL literature evaluation or performance appraisal, management, and education. Findings The review demonstrates that a lot has been learned in a short time via DL studies. However, a number of issues are yet to be resolved. In other words, research in the arena of DLs is still growing and it is predicted that new horizons will emerge, along with a variety of issues. Research limitationsimplications The review does not claim to be comprehensive. Practical implications It is hoped that matters such as legal issues, social issues, standards, metadata, management of intellectual and digital rights and interoperability, not included here, will be discussed in future works. Originalityvalue The paper can serve as a roadmap of digital library research for researchers, designers and users.</abstract>
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<genre>keywords</genre>
<topic>Digital libraries</topic>
<topic>Education</topic>
<topic>Librarians</topic>
<topic>User studies</topic>
<topic>Research</topic>
<topic>Library management</topic>
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<topic authority="SubjectCodesPrimary" authorityURI="cat-IKM">Information & knowledge management</topic>
<topic authority="SubjectCodesSecondary" authorityURI="cat-ICT">Information & communications technology</topic>
<topic authority="SubjectCodesSecondary" authorityURI="cat-INT">Internet</topic>
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<subject>
<genre>Emerald Subject Group</genre>
<topic authority="SubjectCodesPrimary" authorityURI="cat-LISC">Library & information science</topic>
<topic authority="SubjectCodesSecondary" authorityURI="cat-LLM">Librarianship/library management</topic>
<topic authority="SubjectCodesSecondary" authorityURI="cat-LTC">Library technology</topic>
</subject>
<identifier type="ISSN">0264-0473</identifier>
<identifier type="PublisherID">el</identifier>
<identifier type="DOI">10.1108/el</identifier>
<part>
<date>2008</date>
<detail type="volume">
<caption>vol.</caption>
<number>26</number>
</detail>
<detail type="issue">
<caption>no.</caption>
<number>6</number>
</detail>
<extent unit="pages">
<start>844</start>
<end>862</end>
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