Violence and Personality in Forensic Patients
Identifieur interne : 001905 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001904; suivant : 001906Violence and Personality in Forensic Patients
Auteurs : Alexandra Stupperich ; Helga Ihm ; Micha StrackSource :
- Journal of Interpersonal Violence [ 0886-2605 ] ; 2009-01.
Abstract
Concerning the discussion about the connection of personality traits, personality disorders, and mental illness, this study focused on the personality profiles of male forensic patients, prison inmates, and young men without criminal reports. The main topic centered on group-specific personality profiles and identifying personality facets corresponding with mental illness. The authors therefore used the Rasch model-based Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. They individually tested 141 German forensic patients with different crime backgrounds, 122 prison inmates, and 111 soldiers of the German army. Within group differences they found that the individuals with mental retardation differ from patients with a personality disorder or psychosis. Patients with mental retardation displayed higher neurotic and/or paranoid personality accents and tended to be low organized and self-confident.
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DOI: 10.1177/0886260508316305
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<record><TEI wicri:istexFullTextTei="biblStruct"><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Violence and Personality in Forensic Patients</title><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Stupperich, Alexandra" sort="Stupperich, Alexandra" uniqKey="Stupperich A" first="Alexandra" last="Stupperich">Alexandra Stupperich</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Regensburg, Germany</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Ihm, Helga" sort="Ihm, Helga" uniqKey="Ihm H" first="Helga" last="Ihm">Helga Ihm</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Prison Amberg, Germany</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Strack, Micha" sort="Strack, Micha" uniqKey="Strack M" first="Micha" last="Strack">Micha Strack</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Georg-August-University of Goettingen, Germany</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">ISTEX</idno><idno type="RBID">ISTEX:03C02E8B44A4BD8B0CF52199AF2E18D6995278F7</idno><date when="2009" year="2009">2009</date><idno type="doi">10.1177/0886260508316305</idno><idno type="url">https://api.istex.fr/document/03C02E8B44A4BD8B0CF52199AF2E18D6995278F7/fulltext/pdf</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Istex/Corpus">001905</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Istex" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="ISTEX">001905</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title level="a" type="main" xml:lang="en">Violence and Personality in Forensic Patients</title><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Stupperich, Alexandra" sort="Stupperich, Alexandra" uniqKey="Stupperich A" first="Alexandra" last="Stupperich">Alexandra Stupperich</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of Regensburg, Germany</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Ihm, Helga" sort="Ihm, Helga" uniqKey="Ihm H" first="Helga" last="Ihm">Helga Ihm</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Prison Amberg, Germany</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Strack, Micha" sort="Strack, Micha" uniqKey="Strack M" first="Micha" last="Strack">Micha Strack</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Georg-August-University of Goettingen, Germany</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></analytic><monogr></monogr><series><title level="j">Journal of Interpersonal Violence</title><idno type="ISSN">0886-2605</idno><idno type="eISSN">1552-6518</idno><imprint><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><pubPlace>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</pubPlace><date type="published" when="2009-01">2009-01</date><biblScope unit="volume">24</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">1</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="209">209</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="225">225</biblScope></imprint><idno type="ISSN">0886-2605</idno></series><idno type="istex">03C02E8B44A4BD8B0CF52199AF2E18D6995278F7</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1177/0886260508316305</idno><idno type="ArticleID">10.1177_0886260508316305</idno></biblStruct></sourceDesc><seriesStmt><idno type="ISSN">0886-2605</idno></seriesStmt></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass><langUsage><language ident="en">en</language></langUsage></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">Concerning the discussion about the connection of personality traits, personality disorders, and mental illness, this study focused on the personality profiles of male forensic patients, prison inmates, and young men without criminal reports. The main topic centered on group-specific personality profiles and identifying personality facets corresponding with mental illness. The authors therefore used the Rasch model-based Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. They individually tested 141 German forensic patients with different crime backgrounds, 122 prison inmates, and 111 soldiers of the German army. Within group differences they found that the individuals with mental retardation differ from patients with a personality disorder or psychosis. Patients with mental retardation displayed higher neurotic and/or paranoid personality accents and tended to be low organized and self-confident.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>sage</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Alexandra Stupperich</name><affiliations><json:string>University of Regensburg, Germany</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Helga Ihm</name><affiliations><json:string>Prison Amberg, Germany</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Micha Strack</name><affiliations><json:string>Georg-August-University of Goettingen, Germany</json:string></affiliations></json:item></author><subject><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>personality profiles</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>forensic patients</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>prison inmates</value></json:item></subject><articleId><json:string>10.1177_0886260508316305</json:string></articleId><language><json:string>eng</json:string></language><originalGenre><json:string>research-article</json:string></originalGenre><abstract>Concerning the discussion about the connection of personality traits, personality disorders, and mental illness, this study focused on the personality profiles of male forensic patients, prison inmates, and young men without criminal reports. The main topic centered on group-specific personality profiles and identifying personality facets corresponding with mental illness. The authors therefore used the Rasch model-based Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. They individually tested 141 German forensic patients with different crime backgrounds, 122 prison inmates, and 111 soldiers of the German army. Within group differences they found that the individuals with mental retardation differ from patients with a personality disorder or psychosis. Patients with mental retardation displayed higher neurotic and/or paranoid personality accents and tended to be low organized and self-confident.</abstract><qualityIndicators><score>7.848</score><pdfVersion>1.7</pdfVersion><pdfPageSize>396 x 612 pts</pdfPageSize><refBibsNative>true</refBibsNative><abstractCharCount>899</abstractCharCount><pdfWordCount>4408</pdfWordCount><pdfCharCount>32285</pdfCharCount><pdfPageCount>17</pdfPageCount><abstractWordCount>120</abstractWordCount></qualityIndicators><title>Violence and Personality in Forensic Patients</title><refBibs><json:item><author><json:item><name>P.S. Applebaum</name></json:item><json:item><name>P.C. Robbins</name></json:item><json:item><name>J. 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In sex offenders: Long-term predictive validity of four risk assessment instruments</title></json:item><json:item><author><json:item><name>I. Sutherland</name></json:item><json:item><name>P. 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The main topic centered on group-specific personality profiles and identifying personality facets corresponding with mental illness. The authors therefore used the Rasch model-based Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. They individually tested 141 German forensic patients with different crime backgrounds, 122 prison inmates, and 111 soldiers of the German army. Within group differences they found that the individuals with mental retardation differ from patients with a personality disorder or psychosis. Patients with mental retardation displayed higher neurotic and/or paranoid personality accents and tended to be low organized and self-confident.</p></abstract><textClass><keywords scheme="keyword"><list><head>keywords</head><item><term>personality profiles</term></item><item><term>forensic patients</term></item><item><term>prison inmates</term></item></list></keywords></textClass></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="2009-01">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/03C02E8B44A4BD8B0CF52199AF2E18D6995278F7/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="corpus sage not found" wicri:toSee="no header"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:docType PUBLIC="-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.3 20070202//EN" URI="journalpublishing.dtd" name="istex:docType"></istex:docType><istex:document><article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="2.3" xml:lang="EN"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">spjiv</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">JIV</journal-id><journal-title>Journal of Interpersonal Violence</journal-title><issn pub-type="ppub">0886-2605</issn><publisher><publisher-name>SAGE Publications</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1177/0886260508316305</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">10.1177_0886260508316305</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Violence and Personality in Forensic Patients</article-title><subtitle>Is There a Forensic Patient-Specific Personality Profile?</subtitle></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Stupperich</surname><given-names>Alexandra</given-names></name><aff>University of Regensburg, Germany</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Ihm</surname><given-names>Helga</given-names></name><aff>Prison Amberg, Germany</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Strack</surname><given-names>Micha</given-names></name><aff>Georg-August-University of Goettingen, Germany</aff></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>01</month><year>2009</year></pub-date><volume>24</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>209</fpage><lpage>225</lpage><abstract><p>Concerning the discussion about the connection of personality traits, personality disorders, and mental illness, this study focused on the personality profiles of male forensic patients, prison inmates, and young men without criminal reports. The main topic centered on group-specific personality profiles and identifying personality facets corresponding with mental illness. The authors therefore used the Rasch model-based Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. They individually tested 141 German forensic patients with different crime backgrounds, 122 prison inmates, and 111 soldiers of the German army. Within group differences they found that the individuals with mental retardation differ from patients with a personality disorder or psychosis. Patients with mental retardation displayed higher neurotic and/or paranoid personality accents and tended to be low organized and self-confident.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>personality profiles</kwd><kwd>forensic patients</kwd><kwd>prison inmates</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value>209Violenceand Personality in Forensic PatientsIs There a Forensic Patient—SpecificPersonality Profile?SAGE Publications, Inc.200910.1177/0886260508316305AlexandraStupperichUniversity of Regensburg, GermanyHelgaIhmPrison Amberg, GermanyMichaStrackGeorg-August-University of Goettingen, GermanyConcerning the discussionabout the connection of personality traits, personality disorders, and mentalillness, this study focused on the personality profiles of male forensicpatients, prison inmates, and young men without criminal reports. The maintopic centered on group-specific personality profiles and identifying personalityfacets corresponding with mental illness. The authors therefore used the Raschmodel—based Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. They individuallytested 141 German forensic patients with different crime backgrounds, 122prison inmates, and 111 soldiers of the German army. Within group differencesthey found that the individuals with mental retardation differ from patientswith a personality disorder or psychosis. Patients with mental retardationdisplayed higher neurotic and/or paranoid personality accents and tendedto be low organized and self-confident.personality profilesforensic patientsprison inmatesPredictingfuture crimes of mentally ill patients, especially those with vio- lent crimes,is one of the main tasks of clinical forensic work. Therefore, there was aspecific focus on development and evaluation of risk assessment instrumentsduring the last decade. It could be demonstrated that in most instru- ments(Psychopathy Checklist [PCL], Historical Clinical Risk [HCR-20],Authors'Note: We thank the Westfalian Centre of Forensic Psychiatry– Eickelbornfor promotion and sponsorship. In addition, we thank the German Ministry ofDefense for permission as well as the General Weber Barrack for their hospitability.210ActuarialRisk Assessment for Sexual Offenders [STATIC-99]) external vari- ables arehighly predictive (Stadtland et al., 2005). Having a closer look at these “statics,” it can be detected that (clinical) forensic patients and (nonclinical) prisonpopulations share most of these predictive items such as socioeconomic status,violence history, and so on (Skeem, Miller, Mulvey, Tiemann, & Monahan,2005). In addition, having a closer look at the role of mental disease asa risk predictor, it seems that psychiatric scales such as Delusional Beliefsand Psychotic Symptoms are relatively weak or inconsistent predictors forinterpersonal violence (Applebaum, Robbins, & Monahan, 2000). “Allof this is not to say that mental illness is not a modest powerful risk factorfor violence, but that the most powerful predictors of violence are similarfor those with and without mental illness” (Skeem et al., 2005, p. 454).It is interesting that the authors favored the idea of general personalitytraits—independent from psy- chiatric diagnosis—that predisposean individual toward situations or relation- ships that end up with criminalinteractions. Caspi et al. (1997) demonstrated that high impulsivity and highnegative emotional states prospectively predict involvement in risk behaviorand increase the likelihood of engaging in criminal acts without consideringtheir consequences (Cooke, Michie, Hart, & Clark, 2004). Lack of empathyand anxiety result in failure to inhibit violent thought and urges (Cookeet al., 2004). Cooper et al. (2003) stated that different risk- taking behaviorsare associated with a similar set of personality characteristics, for example,impulsivity and sensation seeking, or low self-respect. In a study by Becker(2002), four personality dimensions (neuroticism, extraversion/ openness,conscientiousness, agreeableness) of the Trier Integrated Personality Inventory(TIPI) discriminated different German criminal populations from the controlgroups. However, few studies analyzed the personality profiles in popu- lationswith mental illness (Cooper et al., 2003; Ferell, Kung, White, & Valois,2000). In our study, we analyzed the personality of forensic patients accommo-dated in a psychiatric hospital, prison inmates, and young men without severecriminal reports but liable to military service (who expose a general readinessfor engaging in violent behavior). We analyzed the personality of forensicpatients accommodated in a psy- chiatric hospital, prison inmates, and youngmen without severe criminal reports but liable to military service (who exposea general readiness for engaging in violent behavior). The main aim was toexamine the personality structure of these three groups. A characteristicpersonality profile for forensic patients was assumed, which can clearly bediscriminated from that of men- tally sane criminals and young men withoutsevere criminal backgrounds. Personality traits are defined as relative endurancedispositions and can there- fore be separated from transient states or moods.Trait-based concepts are pro- totypically leading the way in their conceptualizationof individual differences211(McCrae& Costa, 1997). Personality traits (personality dimensions, for example,neuroticsm, extraversion) are seen as “potentially useful for screen-ing purposes, for example identifying individual differences in a clinically-relevant population that may be useful for treatment targeting in that popula-tion” (Shadel, Cervone, Niaura, & Abrams, 2004, p. 185). In personalityinventories, the dimensions (traits) are determined through aggregation ofa number of items. Some personality inventories also use personality facets.In this case, one personality dimension covers several intercorrelating personal-ity qualities, which are named as personality facets or primary facets (Becker,2004). These personality facets seem to be promising vehicles for exploringthe specifity and differences of personality profiles of mentally ill forensicand mentally sane populations. The next step was to analyze the differenceof the personality profiles within the forensic patients looking at theirdifferent diagnoses. We dis- criminated three diagnosis groups: (a) personalitydisorder, (b) psychosis, and (c) mentally retarded. We wanted to get informationabout the specifity of the patients' personality profiles. Method The TIPI4 is a hierarchical model of the structure of personality traits based onthe 4PX factor model of personality traits. One of the basics of this modelis the association of a hierarchical connection between conduct (covered bysingle items), personality traits (summation of homogeneous items of one scale),and personality dimensions (a weighted summation of scales by factorial analysis)(Figure 1). Becker (2004) developed 4 global scales (the Big Four: Neuroticism,Extraversion/Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) and 34 primaryscales (facet scales). 1. Neuroticism reflects individual differences in theability to cope with external and internal (mental) demands. Individuals withhigh scores on neuroticism are characterized by emotional lability or negativeaffectivity, a negative self-concept, and social avoidant behavior. 2. Agreeablenessrefers to the balance between egoism and consideration of other people's interests.Persons high on disagreeableness are characterized by callousness, manipulativeness,falseness, rejection, irresponsibility, unscrupu- lousness, narcissistic arrogance,stubbornness, violence, and conduct problems. 3. Conscientiousness is centeredon self-control or the control of impulses. Individuals high on this factorare characterized by self-discipline and dutifulness.212Figure1 The TIPI StructureSource:Becker (2002). Note: TIPI = Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. Scales:N = Neuroticism; A = Agreeableness; C = Conscientiousness; E/O = Extraversion/Openness.4. Extraversion/Openness concerns the degree of openness about, and willingnessto engage in, the social environment, especially if the environ- ment offersnew and exciting aspects. Individuals with high scores on this factor activelyapproach life with energy, enthusiasm, and optimism. The 34 facet scales (Sensitivityfor Rejection, Brooding, Dependency, Feelings of Injustice, Physical Complaints,Compliance, Poor Concentration, Affective Instability, Fear of Being Left,Suicidality, Unforgivingness, Verbal Aggression, Magic Thinking, Self-Consciousness,Self-Confidence, Sociabil- ity, Openness to New Experience, Joyance, Empathy,Alertness, Zest for Action, Hedonism, Risk Taking, Extravagance, Falseness,Self-Assertion, Unscrupu- lousness, Narcissistic Arrogance, Mistrust, Violence,Patience/Care, Planning, Norm-Orientation, Work-Orientation) are measuredby independent items, which means that the according questionnaire contains254 questions (6-point answers: “In 0 to 5 cases, I behave like described. . .”). Participants We individually tested 374 men, of which 141 wereGerman forensic patients (mean age 36.55 years) with different crime backgrounds(76 sexual offenders, 38 battery or murder, 20 others, 7 no information).The juridical cri- teria for forensic commitment in Germany are the presenceof a mental disor- der and if the offender should be considered as permanentlydangerous. Crime213backgroundswere identified by file study (sentence, patient file) and face-to- face interviews(in a forensic hospital setting). Primary diagnosis was claimed by file study(International Classification of Diseases, ICD-10, as assessment instrument)and resulted in 51 patients with personality disorders, 34 with intel- lectualdisabilities, 18 with psychosis (38 others). The education level was low:33 patients did not graduate from high school. More than half of the patientshave had a drug or alcohol problem in their history. We also tested 122 prisoninmates (mean age 40.22 years; 8 sexual offenders, 1 battery or murder, 79oth- ers). Criminal reports were taken by file study (sentence, inmate file)and face- to-face interviews (in a prison setting), χ2(34) of age was113.10 (p = .02). They showed a low level of education, but within this sample,mental diseases did not occur. We proposed that proper control group selectionis important, as differ- ences in sex and other sociodemographics are commonlyknown to influence personality scores (Becker, 2004; Goodwin & Gotlib,2004). Therefore, we also tested 111 young men serving their military servicein the German army (administrative decision Fü S I3 1/482/03, mean age 22.66,16 with criminal reports). This sample was significantly younger than thecriminal samples (p < .01). The education level was not higher than a highschool degree. A test for mental disorder could be dispensed with becausepresence of a mental dis- order would exclude a young man from German militaryservice. Statistical Evaluation The data collection (TIPI questionnaire) wasdone by using the paper- and-pencil version of the TIPI. • Forensic patientscompleted the questionnaire in a specific room on ward with a psychologistbeing present. • Within two forensic hospitals in a ward setting, conscriptarmy soldiers were asked to visit a special room in the barrack one by one,too. A psychologist again was present. • Prison inmates were asked tocomplete the questionnaire in presence of the ward psychologist. Instructionswere given in accordance with the TIPI handbook. Transformation of raw datainto t-values according to the Rasch model took place by using the TIPI analysisprogram (Becker, 2004). We used discriminant analysis for testing the researchquestions. Discriminant functions were interpreted by the within-group correlationsof the discriminant variables of the TIPI with standardized canonical dis-criminant functions (structure matrix). Correct group classification was214Table1 Big Fours' Mean t-Values of 141 Forensic Patients, 122 Prison inmates, and111 Army SoldiersNote:TIPI = Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. tested with Cohen's Kappa.All statistic analysis was done by using SPSS (Version 12.0). Results ForensicPatients The primary aim of this exploratory study was to test if there isa specific forensic patient personality profile. In the first step, we usedchi-square analy- sis to test how the groups differ on the Big Four (Table1) and the primary facets (Table 2). We found forensic patients less agreeable, χ2(104)= 187.00, and with higher mean t-values for Neuroticism, χ2(120) = 155.44,p = .02, and Conscientiousness, χ2(104) = 102.33, p = .05. Army soldiersshowed the highest scores within Extraversion, χ2(118) = 154.00, p =.05. Looking at the primary facets belonging to Neuroticism, the followingfacets differed (p < .001): feelings of injustice, χ2(38) = 77.10; physical com- plaints, χ2(46) = 94.98; poor concentration, χ2 (54)= 119.38; affective instability, χ2(32) = 79.64; fear of being left, χ 2(42) = 81.93; suicidality, χ2(24) = 81.78; verbal aggression, χ2(66) = 150.94; and self-confidence, χ2 (74) = 137.28. Forensic patientsshowed the highest scores in all these facets except self-confidence. Withinthe primary facets belonging to Extraversion/Openness, the highest mean t-valueswere found mostly for the army soldiers: Group differences (p < .001) resultedwithin joyfulness, χ 2(74) = 118.32; hedonism, χ2(70) = 125.72; and risk taking, χ 2(66) = 112.94. The four differing primary facetsbelonging to Disagreeableness were unscrupulousness, χ 2(40) = 100.45; narcissistic arro- gance, χ 2(70) = 141.91; falseness, χ2 (52) =90.41; and violence, χ2 (46) = 112.47. Within those scales, forensicpatients showed the highest mean t-values. With215Table2 Primary Facets' Mean t-Values of 141 Forensic Patients, 122 Prison Inmates,and 111 Army SoldiersNote:TIPI = Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. Significant data are displayedin bold. regard to Consciousness, only “planning” differed, χ2(46)= 80.04. Again, the forensic patients showed the highest mean scores. Figure2 shows that forensic patients' scale values are mostly higher than thoseof the prison group and the216Figure2 Personality Profile of 141 Forensic Patients, 122 Prison Inmates, and 111Army Soldiers (mean t-values)controlsin nearly all scales of Neuroticism, Disagreeableness, and Conscious- ness.Army soldiers are highest in nearly all facets of Extraversion/Openness. Thediscriminant analysis separates the three groups by the Big Four (Function1 to 2: χ2(8) = 140.63 and Function 2, χ2(3) = 51.94, p < .001,59.4% correct classifications, κ = .39) and also by the 34 primary scales(Function 1 to 2: χ2(68) = 356.88 and Function 2: χ2(33) = 141.53,p < .001, 75.3% correct classifications, κ = .63). The first discriminantfunction of the analysis of 34 primary scales was defined through high self-confidence(r = .38), low norm-orientation (r = –. 28), high joyfulness (r = .27),and low brooding (r = –.24). We titled this as “cheer- ful self-confidence.” The second one is defined through verbal (r = .65) and physical aggression(r = .58), unscrupulousness (r = .58), and narcissistic arro- gance (r = .57).We described this as “unscrupulous aggressive.” Resuming, we foundforensic patients and prison inmates with low self-confidence and joyfulness(function of group centroid “forensics”:217Figure3 Scatter Plot of All Participants (N = 374)—Discriminant Functions1 and 2 for All 34 Primary Scales of the TIPI Discriminating Diagnostic Groups(forensic, army, prison)Note:TIPI = Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. Function 1 = –.44; prisoninmates: Function 1 = –.76). What differed between these groups wasthat the forensic patients showed even more unscrupulous aggressive behavior(function of group centroid “forensics”: Function 2 = .86; prisoninmates: Function 2 = –.81). The army soldiers with no severe criminalreports and who were mentally sane differed from the two criminal samplesespecially in their more optimistic view of life and open extravert personality(group centroid of Function 1 = 1.40), and they showed lower tendency foraggression (group centroid of Function 1 = –.16) than the forensicpatients (Figure 3).218Usingjust the two criminal samples, discriminant analysis of 34 primary scalesagain reached significance, χ2(34) = 113.243, p £ .001; 79.46% correctclassifications, κ = .59. The discriminant function of the analysis of34 pri- mary scales is defined through high verbal aggression (r = .66), unscrupu-lousness (r = .64), violence (r = .62), and narcissistic arrogance (r = .59).Diagnosis Are there diagnosis-specific personality profiles within forensicpatients? The personality profile of three diagnosis groups (n = 37 psychosis,n = 57 per- sonality disorder, and n = 35 mentally retarded; “others” were excluded) are shown in Figure 4. The psychotic group was described withall mental forms of conditions that affect the mind and prevent patients frombeing able to dis- tinguish between the real world and the imaginary world(especially halluci- nations, irrational thoughts, and fears). Personalitydisorders were defined by ICD-10 in topics F.40 and patients who were mentallydisabled by ICD-10 in topics F.70 to F.79. Patients who were mentally retardedshowed the highest scores in Neuroticism (mean t-values: mentally retarded,70.94; psychosis, 60.00; personality disorder, 62.52). They emphasized brooding(mean t-value = 68.47), dependency (mean t-value = 64.33), and feelings ofinjustice (mean t-value = 70.17), and they were verbally aggressive (meant-value = 63.97), hedonistic (mean t-value = 66.40), and mistrusting (meant-value = 70.33). Psychotic patients and patients with personality disorderswere fearful of being left (mean t-values: psychosis = 65.00, personalitydisorder = 63.74), but those with a personality disorder tend to be more physicallyviolent (mean t-values: psychosis = 60.45; personality disorder = 64.15).The discriminant analysis separated the three diagnosis groups merely withthe Big Four (Function 1 to 2: χ2(8) = 22.81, p < .01; Function 2not significant, 41.86% correct classifications, κ =.10), as well as by34 primary scales (Function 1 to 2: χ2(68) = 90.53 p < .05; Function2 not significant, 80.71% cor- rect classifications, κ = .69), but discriminationremains only unidimensional. The first discriminant function built by the34 primary scales was defined through feelings of injustice (r = .40), mistrust(r = .40), poor concentration (r = .38), and dependency (r = .37). We titledthis as “neurotic/paranoid,” the second (insignificant) one throughlow self-confidence (r = –.29), low norm- orientation (r = –.24),and high self- aggression (suicidality) (r = .20). We sum- marized this as “under–self-confident/disorganized.” Patients who were mentally disabled displayed higher neurotic/paranoid behaviorand tended to be low self-confident/organized (function of group centroid:Function 1 = 1.60, Function 2 = –.217). The patients who were psychoticand were under219Figure4 Personality Profiles of 141 Forensic Patients, 57 With Personality Disorders,35 Intellectually Disabled, 37 With Psychosistreatmentshowed low neurotic/paranoid accents and self-confident/organized (functionof group centroid: Function 1 = –1.32; Function 2 = –1.08).The patients with personality disorders felt low neurotic/paranoid but tendedto have low self-confidence (function of group centroid: Function 1 = –.49; Function 2 = .55) (Figure 5). Using just psychotic patients and such witha personality disorder dis- criminant analysis did not reach significance, χ2(34)= 36.55, p = .35. At least we used chi-square analysis to specify the primaryfacets, in which the three groups differed (Table 3). Within the patientswho were mentally retarded, we found the highest value within the primaryfacets “sensitivity to rejection” (mean values: mentally retarded,58.59; psychosis, 51.72; personality disorders, 54.18; χ2(54) = 71.67,p ≤ .05), “poor concen- tration” (mean value: mentally retarded,64.94; psychosis, 56.50; personal- ity disorders, 55.14; χ2(48) = 66.83,p ≤ .05), “zest for action” (mean values: mentally retarded,61.46; psychosis, 57.06; personality disorders, 54.98; χ2(54) = 72.76,p ≤ .05), and planning (mean values: mentally retarded, 56.84; psy- chosis,51.06; personality disorders, 49.60; χ2(38) = 58.25, p ≤ .05).220Figure5 Scatter Plot of Forensic Patients (N = 103)—Discriminant Functions1 and 2 Discriminating Diagnostic Groups (mentally retarded, psychosis, personalitydisorder)ConclusionWe summarized that a tightly characteristic personality profile for forensicpatients did exist. Forensic patients described themselves as more aggressiveand unscrupulous with a negative view on life and low self-confidence. Thelatter was shared with the prison inmates. The criminal groups both differedfrom the young soldiers, who were more optimistic/self-confident, and they221Table3 Primary Facets Within Diagnostic GroupsNote:TIPI = Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. Significant data are displayedin bold. did not show such accented values within the dimension of aggression(neither in the direction high aggressive nor low aggressive). Having a closerlook at the within-group differences, we identified a subset of participantswith mental retardation, who displayed higher “neurotic/ paranoid” behavior and tended to be low self-confident/organized, but the TIPI222wasnot able to differ just between psychotic patients and such with a person-ality disorder. According to the model used (TIPI, Becker, 2004), these personswere highly sensitive to rejection and suffered from poor concentration. Theyaccented zest for action and planned carefully. Therefore, we concluded thatparticipants with mental retardation should be seen as a subgroup, which shouldbe controlled in further studies. According to clinical evi- dence, we recommendedplacement in specialized units. Discussion The German penalty system is runningdouble-tracked: Criminals can be sen- tenced to prison or to treatment ina forensic psychiatric hospital. Preconditions for forensic treatment aremental illness and severe crimes as well as future risk for the society. Themain goal of this explorative study was to describe the personality of mentallyill predators compared to mentally sane ones and young men without severecriminal reports, but with general readiness for engaging in violent behavior.We used the psychological construct of per- sonality with its four dimensions(Neuroticism, Openness/Extraversion, Consciousness, and Agreeableness). Comparisonof pre-defined groups typically suffers from various methodi- cal problems.Sample size in forensic research is critical especially if a large numberof variables are considered. In predefined groups, third variables such aseducational status and social level may be confounded with group definition.What field research can do here is to give more importance to the selectionof the control group. We tried to control the forensic patients and prisoninmates with a sample from a similar educational level (exclusion of individualswith more than a medium educational level) and a general readiness for engagingin violent behavior. Nevertheless, the average age was less than that of thetwo criminal samples. But what we found was that the conscript army soldiers— compared to the complete norm sample of Becker (2004)—already had higherscores on Extraversion (T = 60.38) and (Dis)agreeableness (T = 58.85). So,if we had not used the specific group of army soldiers but the TIPI norm group,Extraversion and (Dis)agreeableness might have played an even stronger rolein judging the two criminal samples, which would be misleading. In principle,our study showed that the TIPI (Becker, 2004) has the potential to serve asa screening tool to differ between mentally ill forensic patients, men- tallysane prison inmates, and populations without severe criminal reports. Furthermore,the TIPI is able to identify subgroups within the forensic patients.223Lookingat the global facets, Neuroticism and (Dis)agreeableness are the main dimensionsfor forensic patient status. However, Eysenck and Eysenck (1992) and Zuckerman(1994) described Extraversion or the need for stimula- tion as predictive,and Miller and Lynam (2003) found antagonism and low conscientiousness asmost important dimensions for describing individuals involved in antisocialbehavior. Becker (2002) emphasized the role of (Dis)agree- ableness for criminalstatus if the sample is characterized by individuals with a violent criminalbackground. In our study we could replicate these results. Within forensicpopulations, high neuroticism is often described and its con- nection to violencediscussed (Skeem et al., 2005; llle, Lahousen, Rous, Hofmann, & Kapfhammer,2005). Within our study, neuroticism characterized the forensic sample too,but it should be suggested that it might have been a main effect of mentallyhandicapped ones. For detailed statements, the primary scales of the TIPIare more useful. Levine and Jackson (2004) remarked that primary scales shouldbe included because “the primary scales explain the criteria more comprehensivelyand consistently than the super factors” (p. 144). In our study, theuse of all 38 scales always resulted in a higher rate of correct classificationthan using just the “Big Four.” Forensic patient status was characterizedboth by aggression and low self- confidence/joyfulness status. Both aggressionand low self-confidence/joyfulness are well-documented predictors of persistentviolent careers (Becker, 2002; Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2004; Shoal & Giancola, 2003; Sutherland & Shepherd, 2002). Low self-confidence in connectionwith high narcissistic arrogance, unscrupulousness, and falseness is oftenseen as a strong predictor for interpersonal violence (Baumeister, Smart,& Boden, 1999; Becker, 2002). In our study, aggressive/unscrupulous behaviorwas an independent aspect of the forensic personality (discriminant Function2) and helpful to differ between forensic patients and prison inmates. Forensicpatients showed them- selves more aggressive than prison inmates. This isan interesting result but may be a result of political seated trend in Germanyto send highly dangerous crim- inals into a forensic hospital instead of prisonby using the diagnosis of antiso- cial personality disorder. On the otherhand, it was low self-confidence, which appeared within foren- sic patients(M = 46.30) as well as prison inmates (M = 46.31) and differed with the soldiers(M = 53.72). Therapeutic intervention might be wise there. Having a closerlook at the forensic patients' within differences, we found that the identificationof mental retardation is an important third variable within forensic studies,and it should be more understudied in general. Patients who are mentally retardeddiffer in personality structure. They accent other traits, and as a consequence,they need other treatment concepts.224ReferencesApplebaum, P.S., Robbins, P.C.,& Monahan, J.(2000). Violence and delusions: Data from the Mac-ArthurViolence Risk Assessment Study. American Journal of Psychiatry , 157, 187-215.Baumeister, R.F., Smart, L.,& Boden, J.M.(1999). Relation of threatened egoism to violence andaggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology: Keyreadings in social psychology (pp. 240-284). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.Becker, P.(2002). 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The main topic centered on group-specific personality profiles and identifying personality facets corresponding with mental illness. The authors therefore used the Rasch model-based Trier Integrated Personality Inventory. They individually tested 141 German forensic patients with different crime backgrounds, 122 prison inmates, and 111 soldiers of the German army. Within group differences they found that the individuals with mental retardation differ from patients with a personality disorder or psychosis. Patients with mental retardation displayed higher neurotic and/or paranoid personality accents and tended to be low organized and self-confident.</abstract><subject><genre>keywords</genre><topic>personality profiles</topic><topic>forensic patients</topic><topic>prison inmates</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Journal of Interpersonal Violence</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0886-2605</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1552-6518</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">JIV</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spjiv</identifier><part><date>2009</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>24</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>1</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>209</start><end>225</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">03C02E8B44A4BD8B0CF52199AF2E18D6995278F7</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1177/0886260508316305</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.1177_0886260508316305</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource>SAGE</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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