A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health
Identifieur interne : 000422 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000421; suivant : 000423A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health
Auteurs : Beate Minsel ; Peter Becker ; Sheldon J. KorchinSource :
- Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology [ 0022-0221 ] ; 1991-06.
Abstract
Student teachers, working teachers, and retired teachers (N = 595) from four countries (France, Germany, Greece, and the United States) completed a questionnaire containing 186 items in Likert format with instructions to describe the mentally healthy person. Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied.
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DOI: 10.1177/0022022191222001
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<record><TEI wicri:istexFullTextTei="biblStruct"><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health</title><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Minsel, Beate" sort="Minsel, Beate" uniqKey="Minsel B" first="Beate" last="Minsel">Beate Minsel</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Universität der Bundeswehr Munchen</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Becker, Peter" sort="Becker, Peter" uniqKey="Becker P" first="Peter" last="Becker">Peter Becker</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>Universität Trier</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author><author wicri:is="90%"><name sortKey="Korchin, Sheldon J" sort="Korchin, Sheldon J" uniqKey="Korchin S" first="Sheldon J." last="Korchin">Sheldon J. 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Korchin</name><affiliation><mods:affiliation>University of California, Berkeley</mods:affiliation></affiliation></author></analytic><monogr></monogr><series><title level="j">Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology</title><idno type="ISSN">0022-0221</idno><idno type="eISSN">1552-5422</idno><imprint><publisher>Sage Publications</publisher><pubPlace>Sage CA: Thousand Oaks, CA</pubPlace><date type="published" when="1991-06">1991-06</date><biblScope unit="volume">22</biblScope><biblScope unit="issue">2</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" from="157">157</biblScope><biblScope unit="page" to="181">181</biblScope></imprint><idno type="ISSN">0022-0221</idno></series><idno type="istex">AA4510CC490788DD76A7458B964B532D5F2CFE62</idno><idno type="DOI">10.1177/0022022191222001</idno><idno type="ArticleID">10.1177_0022022191222001</idno></biblStruct></sourceDesc><seriesStmt><idno type="ISSN">0022-0221</idno></seriesStmt></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass><langUsage><language ident="en">en</language></langUsage></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">Student teachers, working teachers, and retired teachers (N = 595) from four countries (France, Germany, Greece, and the United States) completed a questionnaire containing 186 items in Likert format with instructions to describe the mentally healthy person. Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>sage</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Beate Minsel</name><affiliations><json:string>Universität der Bundeswehr Munchen</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Peter Becker</name><affiliations><json:string>Universität Trier</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Sheldon J. Korchin</name><affiliations><json:string>University of California, Berkeley</json:string></affiliations></json:item></author><articleId><json:string>10.1177_0022022191222001</json:string></articleId><language><json:string>eng</json:string></language><originalGenre><json:string>research-article</json:string></originalGenre><abstract>Student teachers, working teachers, and retired teachers (N = 595) from four countries (France, Germany, Greece, and the United States) completed a questionnaire containing 186 items in Likert format with instructions to describe the mentally healthy person. Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied.</abstract><qualityIndicators><score>1.761</score><pdfVersion>1.3</pdfVersion><pdfPageSize>396 x 612 pts</pdfPageSize><refBibsNative>true</refBibsNative><abstractCharCount>1071</abstractCharCount><pdfWordCount>9</pdfWordCount><pdfCharCount>54</pdfCharCount><pdfPageCount>25</pdfPageCount><abstractWordCount>146</abstractWordCount></qualityIndicators><title>A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health</title><refBibs><json:item><author><json:item><name>P. 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Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied.</p></abstract></profileDesc><revisionDesc><change when="1991-06">Published</change></revisionDesc></teiHeader></istex:fulltextTEI><json:item><extension>txt</extension><original>false</original><mimetype>text/plain</mimetype><uri>https://api.istex.fr/document/AA4510CC490788DD76A7458B964B532D5F2CFE62/fulltext/txt</uri></json:item></fulltext><metadata><istex:metadataXml wicri:clean="corpus sage not found" wicri:toSee="no header"><istex:xmlDeclaration>version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"</istex:xmlDeclaration><istex:docType PUBLIC="-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing DTD v2.3 20070202//EN" URI="journalpublishing.dtd" name="istex:docType"></istex:docType><istex:document><article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="2.3" xml:lang="EN"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="hwp">spjcc</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">JCC</journal-id><journal-title>Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology</journal-title><issn pub-type="ppub">0022-0221</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Sage Publications</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Sage CA: Thousand Oaks, CA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1177/0022022191222001</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">10.1177_0022022191222001</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health</article-title><subtitle>Two Orthogonal Main Factors Replicable in Four Countries</subtitle></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Minsel</surname><given-names>Beate</given-names></name><aff>Universität der Bundeswehr Munchen</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Becker</surname><given-names>Peter</given-names></name><aff>Universität Trier</aff></contrib></contrib-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Korchin</surname><given-names>Sheldon J.</given-names></name><aff>University of California, Berkeley</aff></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><month>06</month><year>1991</year></pub-date><volume>22</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>157</fpage><lpage>181</lpage><abstract><p>Student teachers, working teachers, and retired teachers (N = 595) from four countries (France, Germany, Greece, and the United States) completed a questionnaire containing 186 items in Likert format with instructions to describe the mentally healthy person. Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied.</p></abstract><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value> Student teachers, working teachers, and retired teachers (N = 595) from four countries (France, Germany, Greece, and the United States) completed a questionnaire containing 186 items in Likert format with instructions to describe the mentally healthy person. Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied. A CROSS-CULTURAL VIEW OF POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH Two Orthogonal Main Factors Replicable in Four Countries BEATE MINSEL Universitat der Bundeswehr Munchen PETER BECKER Universitdt Trier SHELDON J. KORCHIN University of California, Berkeley The study to be reported here deals with the question of how "mentally healthy" persons are conceived in different countries. Because it would be impossible to get data from a representative sample of nationals in any country, we have elected instead to study members of a profession that exists in roughly comparable form in all western countries, which can be conceived as "culture carriers." Our sample, therefore, consisted of groups of teachers, drawn from three points in their careers -students of education, working teachers, and retired teachers. Knowing how these groups view the qualities of the ideally mentally healthy person is of value for a number of theoretical and pragmatic reasons. First, the study of culture-specific opinions about AUTHORS' NOTE: This project was partially supported by a research grant (#lIA4-Mi 270/1-1) from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. We appreciate the helpful remarks and critique from Barbara Ellis and two anonymous reviewers on an earlier version of the article. JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY, Vol. 22 No. 2, June 1991 157-181 o 1991 Westem Washington University 157 158 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY positive mental health is basic to cross-cultural understanding and research. As Draguns (1984) put it, "Various definitions of positive mental health that have been proposed are of necessity grounded in the values and the implicit or explicit philosophies of life of a given culture. If research based on these notions is ever attempted, it should proceed from a careful conceptual analysis of the philosophical sources of these definitions. Better yet, notions of positive mental health originating in several cultural traditions might be formulated, compared, and incorporated into comparative research across cultures" (p. 50). Second, it is important for psychotherapists and health psychologists to know if teachers' concepts of a mentally healthy person correspond to those concepts proposed by the founders of psychotherapeutic schools and by mental health theorists. Third, members of a given society have many personality elements in common. Kardiner (cited in Blum, 1953) has hypothesized that this similarity within a given society is a result of culturally patterned child rearing prac- tices, which lead to similar early experiences. In his opinion, early experi- ences influence the development of later personality structure. Because societies differ in their child rearing practices, which lead to different early experiences, it seems probable that the concept of a healthy person and personality norms may vary in different societies. Fourth, the concept of mental health may vary within a given society. Societies themselves change over time, even in as short a time span as 20 years. For example, West German mothers were asked at what age their children should be able to act independently. In most areas of independence, the age indicated by West German mothers decreased significantly over the last 20 years. In fact, the reported age approached U.S. norms, which also declined during this period (Ehlers, Afflerbach, & Moch, 1978; Lukesch, 1976). Thus it seems plausible that in a particular society different age groups have different normative opinions about a healthy or optimal personality. Fifth, from the point of view of personality psychology it is interesting to ex- amine if the conceptions used by teachers in describing a mentally healthy per- son correspond to the structure of personality as revealed by self-description. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND AIMS OF THE STUDY Based on principal component analyses of eight large sets of well-known personality scales, Becker (1988) consistently found two orthogonal fac- tors explaining much variance: High versus Low Mental Health and High Minsel et al. / POSMVE MENTAL HEALTH 159 versus Low Behavior Control. These factors are similar but not identical to Eysenck's Neuroticism and Extroversion-Introversion factors (for details see Becker, 1988; Becker & Minsel, 1986). The loadings of the trait variables indicate a circumplex structure of personality (see Figure 1). The diagonals of the circumplex structure are named Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Social Adaptation can be regarded as a combination of high Mental Health and high Behavior Control, whereas Self-Actualization is a combination of high Mental Health and low Behavior Control. In other words, we think that there exist different types of mentally healthy people resulting from different combinations of Mental Health and Behavior Control. The relationship of psychological health and self-control has been studied by Shapiro (1983a, 1983b, 1985). Two groups of subjects from the health and healing professions responded to 87 prompt words designed to assess dif- ferent modes of self-control. One group (N = 99) rated the extent to which the words described a person with a high degree of psychological health. The other group (N = 94) rated the extent to which the words described a person with a high degree of self-control. The ratings for the prompt words were very similar in both groups, that is, words indicating a high degree of psychological health also indicated a high degree of self-control and vice versa. Thus in this work there doesn't really exist any differentiation between self-control and psychological health. Shapiro pointed out that his findings are culturally biased and that it is important for clinicians and researchers to make this cultural bias explicit by examining their own ethics, assumptions, and values. Our study is designed to compare professional views known from the mental health literature with the conceptions of professionals not working in the mental health field. Also we want to show which components of mental health are more likely to be culturally biased than others. In addition, we will describe a behavior control dimension, which is conceptually and statistically independent of mental or psychological health. METHOD CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE Item Collection Opinions about mental health can be collected in many different ways. A questionnaire was used in the present study because it is the most economical 160 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY High Behavior Control considerate high self-control well-adapted Social task oriented Adaptation honest strong superego self-confident energetic high willpower High Mental robust Health active good problem solver calm well-balanced autonomous assertive dominant casual lively spontaneous Self- mixes well Actualization well-tempered creative far-sighted cautious plans ahead punctilious norm-oriented inhibited reserved mixes poorly anxious sensitive compliant Inhibition unbalanced self-conscious low willpower depressive passive bad problem solver nervous dependent \ licentious irritable acts out impulsive refuses achievement unreflective sociopathic takes risks immature careless delinquent comes to quick aggressive decisions mistrustful selfish ready for changes seeks sensation Low Mental Health Low Behavior Control Figure 1: Two-dimensionalOrthogonalModelExplainingMaximumVadationinPersonality SOURCE: Adapted from Becker and Minsel (1986, p. 36). and objective way to survey large samples of subjects. Questionnaires offer a high degree of standardization and item comparability in cross-cultural research, as long as items are carefully translated. Another advantage is that questionnaire data can be analyzed with multivariate methods. The questionnaire used consists of 186 items which were to be answered on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from totally disagree to totally agree Social Maladaptiveness Minsel et al. / POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH 161 (the middle category being neither agree nor disagree). The instructions were as follows: "This questionnaire asks how mentally healthy people behave, how they feel, and which attitudes they have. Please answer the questionnaire as you think mentally healthy people of your age and of your sex are." The items were constructed by three psychologists (the authors) who are teaching and researching in the fields of personality and clinical psychology. An attempt was made to operationalize the main components of Cattell's (1967) Behavioral Specification Equation: (a) sentiments (general attitudes towards life; behaviors and attitudes towards oneself, nature and animals, culture, law, morale, norms, traditions, work and play, religion, politics; behaviors and specific attitudes towards partner, own children, friends, rel- atives, and other people); (b) ability traits (intelligence, creativity); (c) tem- peramental traits (e.g., extroversion and neuroticism including five items from the Eysenck Personality Inventory [EPI]; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975), which had comparable factor loadings in the English and the German samples; (d) ergs (such as sex, self-assertion, gregariousness, exploration). Moods were omitted, because they are only relevant in the context of state (not trait). However, some physical health items were included. Because the scales presented in the literature are mostly clinical in nature and thus constructed to differentiate subjects of different clinical groups, our task was to formulate items characterizing positive mental health. One aspect of mental health would of course be the absence of neuroticism and other symptoms. However, the opposite - the presence of healthy characteristics - should also be well defined. Thus we tried to formulate items which we believed might represent the mental health pole, such as problem-solving abilities, balanced mood, and satisfactory social relations. Further, as this is primarily an exploratory study, we formulated items, which in our opinion are important in many people's lives, but which we were unable to clearly classify as mentally healthy or unhealthy. These items were attitudes towards society, traditions and norms, religion, nature, and politics. Translation Problems Equivalence of test items is a basic requirement for intercultural compar- ison. Specific item response differences can be interpreted only if subjects in different countries have the same understanding of a particular item. The scientific literature points out many problems and some solutions in cross- cultural research (Brislin, 1976, 1980; Werner & Campbell, 1970). Transla- tion errors have a greater negative impact if a study is designed to show cultural differences, whereas such errors can be more easily tolerated if a 162 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY study is designed to show cross-cultural similarities. In the latter case, a poor translation will mask real similarities, that is, support the null hypothesis that different cultures are not similar. Similarities between countries, which nevertheless will be found, can with good reason be interpreted as valid. The larger the number of cultures studied and languages used, the smaller the probability that translation errors will have a systematic effect on overall trends. This is also true for studies designed to find differences (Williams & Best, 1982). Translation errors become less probable if the translation is made by a committee of people who are familiar with the research issue, as well as the different languages. Data from pretests with subjects from different countries are also useful in revising items. In this study the English and the German version underwent parallel construction. First the three psychologists formulated the items in English and then translated them into German together. Item formulations in both languages were discussed repeatedly and in great detail. The French version was translated from the German version by two persons, one whose first language was German and one whose first language was French. Both were familiar with the other language. The German version was pretested using twelve German subjects and ten bilingual students at Trier University, West Germany. Half of the subjects filled out the German form, and half of them completed the English form. The French version was pretested using ten French teachers from the French school at Trier. Using these pilot data, it was possible to determine whether there were any unclear formulations or large mean differences due to the different languages. As the next step, the French version was translated into English by a person who had not yet been involved in the process. All four versions (two English, one French, one German) were compared again before completing the final item formulation. The Greek version was translated from the German and English version by a Greek psychologist who had received her university education in Vienna and had been teaching and researching at Athens University for several years. No back translations were done from Greek to any other language, nor was a pretest conducted. Thus results for the Greek sample must be interpreted more cautiously than for the other cultures. Even though the English, German, and French versions are as equivalent as possible, the problem of bias identification remains unresolved. Bijnen, van der Net, and Poortinga (1986) distinguish between qualitative bias (different correlations between variables in different cultures) and quantita- tive bias (statistical interaction of culture and items of the same scale). Whether qualitative bias exists can be shown by comparing the results of Minsel et al. / POSMVE MENTAL HEALTH 163 factor analyses. The problem of quantitative bias is more difficult, because we cannot differentiate between real existing differences between groups (cultures and age groups) and bias. Thus our research focused on the following: (a) exploring what people in different countries think the mentally healthy person is like and by which underlying personality model (factor structure) their thinking may be represented, and (b) determining the rank orders of different mental health components in different cultures. SUBJECT SAMPLE School teachers were selected as subjects for the following reasons: In their functions as teachers and as educators of children, we assume that they have an implicit or even explicit concept of mentally healthy/normal behav- ior. Also, school teachers' opinions about mental health have some political impact. Although teachers do not receive explicit training in the mental health field, they deal with affective and social educational goals in their everyday work. Both men and women traditionally work in this profession in all countries, although the male-female ratio differs somewhat depending on the age of students. Teachers not only educate children in substantive academic areas but also in values, beliefs, and norms of the culture. Moreover the role is structured in similar ways in all of the countries studied. In order to be able to study age differences we decided to survey three groups, namely, students preparing for a teaching career, working teachers, and retired teachers. SAMPLE OF COUNTRIES As we wanted to find cross-culturally comparable concepts of mental health, the cultures studied should be similar. We concentrated on Western democracies. All countries studied are industrialized and are within Judeo- Christian tradition. It was possible to obtain data in the following four countries: France, Greece, West Germany, and the United States.' These cultures also represent extremes in the EPQ (Eysenck, 1983; Lynn, 1981): Of the Western European countries, Greek males and females show the highest, while German females and French males show the lowest Neuroti- cism scores. Still lower are the scores for U.S. Whites. Extroversion scores are highest for Greek subjects and lowest for French subjects. Social desir- ability is highest for Greek subjects and lowest for Germans. Germans (males and females) and French females show highest psychoticism scores, and the low extreme position on this scale is held by English subjects. The 164 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY study of these European groups is of special interest, because it can establish whether they differ only in their self-concepts or in their ideal concepts as well. The United States (San Francisco Bay Area, California) was also included because of similarities to these European groups in its political and philosophical background. We assume that opinions about mental health will nevertheless be somewhat different because people in the United States have more access to psychotherapy than people of the other countries. Therefore, the mentally healthy person described by the U.S. subjects should be more similar to the mentally healthy person described by mental health profession- als. Also, in many respects the United States is 10 to 20 years ahead of Europe, and for Europeans it may be interesting to have a look at the future. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES The study was designed to examine the questions and hypotheses outlined below: 1. Is the factor structure of the items used to characterize the mentally healthy person similar to the two-dimensional factor structure found in self-description (see Figure 1)? Can this circumplex model be replicated in the four countries? We expect to find two factors in principal component analysis of the 186 items: High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. 2. Items indicating emotional stability and lability are expected to have high positive and negative loadings respectively on the Mental Health factor. Further, we expect other items describing abilities to master one's life, for example to be a good problem solver, to have willpower, to discover and develop one's talents, or to be successful in work, to load significantly on Mental Health. 3. Behavior Control is expected to have a similar pattern of marker variables as described in Figure 1. On the positive pole we expect to find items indicating superego strength, norm orientation, and religiosity. On the negative pole expected items include those indicating impulsivity, risk taking, sensation seeking, sociability, nonconformity, and atheism. Soueif, Eysenck, and White (1969) found similar polar opposites in joint factor analyses of the Guilford, Cattell, and Eysenck scales. RESULTS To date, 595 subjects have participated in the study. Table 1 shows the distribution of subjects by country, sex, and age. In all countries working teachers are overrepresented and retired teachers are underrepresented. Also, there are more than 50% female subjects, especially in the U.S. sample. Minsel et al. / POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH 165 TABLE 1 Participants in the Study Age Groups Working Retired Countries Students Teachers Teachers I IE France female 45 67 14 123 male 19 39 10 68 191 age 20-33 23-55 2 55, 60% > 60 Md=23 Md=33 Germany female 62 36 4 102 (West) male 41 39 23 103 205 age 20-30 26-55 >60 Md = 26 Md = 36 Greece female 20 18 4 42 male 12 33 14 59 101 age 19-25 30-52 58-78 Md=20 Md=39 Md=70 USA female 27 41 14 82 male 6 4 6 16 98 age 21-46 29-62 58-78 Md=25 Md=49 Md=63 female 154 162 33 349 male 78 115 53 246 ME 232 277 86 595 Teachers came from different schools. The only restriction was that they should teach children from 7 to 16 years old. In the United States, however, we recruited teachers from elementary schools, where students are 5 to 12 years old. There, teaching at lower levels is considered mainly the responsi- bility of women; therefore we have a high female percentage in the U.S. sample. In Germany and France there exist very strict regulations for the use of person-related data, therefore it was not possible to ask subjects about their exact age or the school at which they were teaching. By doing so, their anonymity might have been violated. Age could, therefore, only be obtained by asking them for the applicable 5-year interval. In Greece and the United States, subjects indicated their year of birth. Students and working teachers of the European countries are comparable. Americans show a wider age range for students and a higher age for working teachers. German retired teachers 166 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY are, probably, the oldest of all the respondents. We found their addresses in the teachers' union paper, which prints its members' 70th birthday. DATA TRANSFORMATION By comparing item means and variances we found that subjects differed widely in their responses on the scale. Some used the whole range from strongly disagree to strongly agree, and others mainly used the three middle categories. Furthermore, response behavior seemed to depend on culture. Greek teachers had the most item means higher than 4 and the fewest items means below 2 on a scale from 1 to 5. German and U.S. teachers, on the other hand, had the largest number of low item means. These differences may be due to meaningful cultural differences. However, as we are more interested in the relative importance of each item for the mental health construct than in the absolute item rating, we decided to transform the data for each subject into standard scores (M = 100, s = 10). By standardization it is possible to determine whether an item is rated above or below the individual mean of all items and, also to establish the item's relative distance from the individual mean. Moreover, this procedure eliminates the influence of individual rater bias such as acquiescence or central tendency. INTRACULTURAL AND INTERCULTURAL FACTOR ANALYSES Extraction of Two Orthogonal Factors Five principal component analyses were conducted, one for all 595 subjects together and one for each culture separately. The analyses showed that a substantial part of total variance can be explained by a two-factor solution (Scree test). The proportions of explained variance by the two factors are: France-8.91% and 4.76%, Germany-7.79% and 5.96%, Greece- 7.77% and 5.38%, USA-8.31% and 5.68%, and all countries combined- 7.24% and 5.12%. Given that these factors are based on individual items (which have much lower reliabilities than entire scales), the proportions of variance explained are relatively large. Rotation of Factor Matrices and Similarities between Factor Solutions Factors were varimax rotated, using only the first two factors for rotation. To get a meaningful rotation for the mental health construct, we computed the average location of the items with highest standardized scores to get the Minsel et al. / POSMITVE MENTAL HEALTH 167 "high mental health centroid" and the average location of the items with lowest standardized scores to get the "low mental health centroid." Some of the items with high standardized scores, however, do not show substantial loadings on the first two factors. The twelve items with scores greater than or equal to 107.5 (which is very typical for a mentally healthy person) have the average location (factor loadings: factor 1/factor 2) .20/-.15. In contrast, the items with low standardized scores show substantial loadings. The centroid of the 21 items with lowest averages (i.e., scores 5 92.50, which is very atypical for a mentally healthy person) has the location -.37/.03 in the solution for all countries combined. We rotated the axes determined by varimax rotation for 50, so that this centroid falls directly on the first factor. The two-factor solutions for each culture were also rotated to the centroid of the same 21 items. Then factor comparisons were made by computing Tucker's factor con- gruency coefficients (Pawlik, 1968). These results are presented in Table 2. The comparability of Fl in different cultures is quite satisfactory, how- ever, the congruency coefficients for F2 are not as high as those for Fl. The sizes of the congruency coefficients seem to decrease with increasing geo- graphical distance between the countries involved. The factor similarity between France or Germany with all countries is greater than the factor similarity between Greece and the United States. This may be due simply to a larger N (about twice as many subjects) in the former countries. The factor congruency coefficients can be regarded as an underestimation of existing similarities between the five-factor structures because the criterion for rota- tion was the centroid of 21 items, but the congruency coefficients were computed out of the loadings of all 186 items. We maintained the orthogonal solution, although in some cases an oblique rotation might have been more appropriate. So, using the Kaiser, Hunka, and Bianchini method (Eysenck, 1987) with rotating the common data vectors of one configuration as close as possible to another configuration and then computing the cosines of the angles between two corresponding factors would have led to higher coeffi- cients. Bijnen et al. (1986) have shown that even with random data, resulting coefficients can be impressively high. Results in Table 2 show that the qualitative bias for Fl is quite low and somewhat larger for F2. Interpretation of the Two Factors Tables 3 and 4 show items with highest loadings on Fl and F2. All items with loadings of at least 1.471 in at least one culture are given. The negative pole of Fl is in all four cultures characterized by items indicating emotional lability (four out of five Eysenck's Neuroticism items 168 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY TABLE 2 lucker's Factor Congruency Coefficients of the Five Two-Factor Solutions (Decimal Points Omitted) France Germany Greece United States All Fl F2 Fl F2 Fl F2 Fl F2 Fl F2 France Fl - F2 -29 - Germany Fl 85 -17 - F2 -14 84 -01 - Greece Fl 77 -28 77 -12 - F2 -18 66 -14 66 -08 - United States Fl 81 -37 77 -26 71 -36 - F2 13 57 26 59 09 44 07 - All Fl 91 -44 92 -29 83 -35 87 06 - F2 09 78 26 83 06 65 -03 70 00 - NOTE: Ft = the Mental Health Factor and F2 = the Behavior Control factor. are located here), social anxiety (Germany and the United States), stubborn- ness, intolerance, hostility (all cultures), doubt that anything is worth fighting for (Germany, France, and the United States), need for security, being difficult to predict (Germany and France) and paying much attention to own appearance (Greece). The positive pole is mainly characterized by a positive social attitude (fairness, contentedness, tolerance, warmth, helpfulness, hon- esty). For the Europeans, happiness and optimism as well as good problem- solving skills have high loadings. Autonomy and responsibility are part of the construct in France, Greece, and the United States. Ability to accept criticism is found only in Germany and the United States, and spontaneity and satisfaction with one's physical appearance only in the United States. The positive pole of the factor seems to be a blend of Mental Health and Social Desirability. It shows similarities with Peabody's (1987) first factor computed from lay persons' similarity judgments of representative adjec- tives, which loads affiliation, impulse expression, cooperativeness, polite- ness, and relaxation. The negative pole of our Mental Health factor is also similar to Shapiro's (1983b) first factor computed from health field profes- sionals' ratings of the psychologically healthy person (pushy, rigid, withhold- ing, aggressive, critical, manipulating). 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Cu * 0 CuR 0 N ",Q Ln t It. Lo: lu CZ. z t12 F. .0 C) C) 8 C) O 0 C) CC . N 0 0 O .0 C) E. 0 ._o ,) m) .0 N LI. 0 CC 0 U C) .0 II C: 171 172 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY The positive pole of F2 in all cultures is mainly characterized by religious devotion and a commitment to laws, social rules, and moral principles. The negative pole loads items indicating atheism, sexuality, curiosity, and risk taking. This factor has some aspects in common with Eysenck's Introversion- Extroversion factor, but it is broader because it contains also religiosity and commitment to norms. We interpret this factor as Behavior Control because it is quite similar to Becker's Behavior Control factor found for self-description. As already mentioned our Behavior Control factor is different from Shapiro's (1983a, 1983b, 1985) concept of self-control. The latter is more an attribute of psychological health than an extra factor. Peabody's (1987) second factor shows some similarities with our Behavior Control factor. The following items load highly on his second factor: orderly, thorough, responsible, practical, organized, logical, cautious, and hardworking. Items indicating religiousness, attitudes towards law, traditions, or sexuality were not included in Peabody's work. Comparison With the Circumplex Model Our next step is to show that the items between the axes also fit the theoretical model shown in Figure 1. For this purpose, we divided the whole circumplex structure into eight sectors of equal size (450 each). For all vari- ables with communalities of at least .0625 (factor solution of all countries together) their location was identified. These were 130 out of 186 items. Table 5 gives the theoretically expected attributes as well as the observed ones. The items found in the eight sectors represent almost ideally the traits given by the circumplex model (see Figure 1). Only some of the items would have been expected in a neighboring cluster. As expected, Eysenck's Neu- roticism items appear in the Low Mental Health sector. The Extroversion- Introversion items exhibit too low communalities to be included (except the item describing whether mentally healthy people like mixing with people, which is located in the Low Behavior Control cluster). The underlying structure of the ratings of the mentally healthy person by female and male teachers of all ages in four countries is almost exactly the same as the structure found for self ratings in many different item pools and subject samples (Becker, 1988). CONSTRUCTION OF CROSS-CULTURALLY COMMON SCALES AND ANALYSES OF VARIANCE Four scales were constructed from the items given above. Two scales represent the factors High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Minsel et al. / POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH 173 TABLE5 Circumplex Structure of the Questionnaire 1. Low mental health Characteristics given by theory: unbalanced, low willpower, passive, depressive, bad problem solver, nervous, self-conscious, dependent 2. Social maladaptiveness Characteristics given by theory: delinquent, irritable, mistrustful, aggressive, refuses achievement, immature, licentious, acting out, sociopatic 3. Low behavior control Characteristics given by theory: unreflected, risk-taking, comes to quick decisions, selfish, sensation seeking, ready for changes, impulsive, careless 4. Self-actualization Characteristics given by theory: assertive, dominant, lively, casual, spontaneous, good mixer, creative, well tempered Items found in the sector: make up mind too late, uncontrollable outbursts of temper, often worry, get tired easily, get frustrated easily, put own interests first, unsure what people think about them, want things their own way, hostile, quickly take pills, restless feeling, cannot relax, condemn faults of others, pay much attention to own appearance, easily give up, often feel guilty, doubt that anything is worth fighting for, bored if alone for several days, easily lose temper, try to be popular, strong need for security, imagine bad things, easily hurt, irritated if a need cannot be satisfied Items found in this sector: get into a jam because they do things without thinking, likely to separate if in serious conflict with partner, need retreat from others to find inner harmony, enjoy flirting, easily cry, do not feel guilty for tax avoidance, feel just miserable for no good reason, often daydream, easily distracted, change attitudes, act impulsively, need good friends to feel happy, critical of their parents, difficult to predict Items found in the sector: can laugh at own faults, rather trust feelings than reason, spend much time with friends, easily aroused sexually, like mixing with people, prefer unknown situations, enjoy sex, love to play games, enjoy taking risks, independence in marriage is important, often masturbate, remember night dreams, atheists, encourage their children to explore, sex is more important than for others Items found in the sector: better physical health than others, relaxed, accept their weaknesses, accept the inevitable, leam from critique, spontaneous, sleep well even under stress, sensitive to feelings of others, often exercise, feel freedom to choose among alternatives, follow own conscience, tolerant, happy, discover and develop their talents, content with own appearance, confident of others, like their own bodies, self- confident, start conversation with strangers, generous to those in need (continued) 174 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY TABLE S Continued 5. Mental health Characteristics given by theory: self-confident, active, energetic, willpower, good problem solver, robust, well- balanced, calm, autonomous. 6. Social adaptation Characteristics given by theory: well adapted, high self- control, task orientated, endurant, honest, strong superego, independent 7. High behavior control Characteristics given by theory: considerate, farsighted, cautious, planning, punctilious, careful, norm-oriented 8. Inhibition Characteristics given by theory: inhibited, reserved, bad mixer, anxious, sensitive, compliant Items found in the sector: feel that life is worth living, accept responsibility for their actions, feel happy, feel loved by parents, good problem solvers, creative ideas, mood fluctuates little, close relationship with siblings, friendly, considerate of others, know their real needs, take care of themselves, take responsibility for others, like to help others, honest with partner, self-confident, happy marriage, stay calm when criticized, optimistic, have willpower, work toward goals after failure Itemsfound in the sector: express themselves clearly, follow rules of religion, like their work, honor commitments, stick with difficult problem, clear and enduring values, find meaning in religion, do not pick a protected plant, know what they want, like regular work, successful in work, religious, go to church, cooperative, love their work, fair, positive attitude towards society, donate money to charitable organizations. Items found in the sector: on Sundays rather work than play, know what is wright and wrong, eat healthy food, take care of health, loyal citizens, want to be better in work, punctual, work more than expected, intelligent, act rationally, raise children well-adjusted, law-abiding, respect customs and traditions, strict moral principles, just looking at them one would know they are mentally healthy Items found in the sector: hide feelings when sad, suffer if separated from mate, often watch television, desire to improve income, under pressure because of obligations, avoid asking for help, never content with themselves, high goals which are difficult to attain, ashamed, concerned that people will be critical, worry more than others, try to make the best impression NOTE: For each sector items with communalities h2 2 .0625 are given (out of the factor analysis of all countries together, item texts abbreviated). Behavior Control. Two scales represent the diagonals Self-Actualization versus Inhibition and Social Adaptation versus Maladaptiveness. Item anal- Minsel et al. / POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH 175 ysis of these scales was conducted for each country separately. Table 6 shows the results of these analyses. It can be seen that the scale means for Mental Health are higher than for Self-Actualization or Social Adaptation. Scale Means for Behavior Con- trol are lowest. With one exception, internal consistencies as measured by Cronbach's alpha are sufficiently high (from .65 to .88). We also conducted a two-way factorial analysis of variance for each scale with the factors being country and age group. The latter was operationalized by job status, that is, student teacher, teacher, or retired teacher. Interaction effects were not computed because corresponding job groups in different cultures are of different ages. Results are given in Table 7. For the Mental Health scale only the main effect of country is significant. The scale values are highest in Germany and lowest in Greece. For the Behavior Control scale, there are significant main effects for country and age group. Greek teachers show higher scores than all other groups. Also, older people show higher scores than younger people. Differ- entiation into job groups explains about twice as much variance as differen- tiation into cultures. Self-Actualization versus Inhibition and Social Adaptation versus Mal- adaptiveness are rated differently in the four countries as well as in the three age groups. The differences are in the same direction as for the Behavior Control scale, that is, groups with higher scores in Behavior Control also show higher scores in Social Adaptation and lower scores in Self-Actualization. DISCUSSION FACTORIAL STRUCTURE OF MENTAL HEALTH Results of principal component analyses have shown that teachers from different countries conceptualize a mentally healthy person using person- ality dimensions, which are also found in questionnaires designed for self- description. Thus the circumplex structure of personality traits shown in Figure 1 is not only valid for self-destination but also, cross-culturally, for ratings of a mentally healthy person. GROUP DIFFERENCES Cultural differences are quite high in rating Self-Actualization and Be- havior Control as more or less healthy. From among the cultures examined, 176 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY TABLE 6 Scale Parameters for Four Countries and Three Age Groups United Germany Greece States France ScheffJ Test (D) (GR) (U.S.) (F) (p <.01) Scale Mental Health versus Mental Illness (na = 45) Chronbach's alpha M SD .881 .849 .852 .881 107.51 105.42 107.27 105.21 F, GR < D, U.S. 3.13 3.50 2.72 3.44 Social Adaptation versus Maladaptiveness (n = 32) Chronbach's alpha .815 .773 .768 .854 M 102.53 103.80 103.30 101.46 F, D < GR SD 3.14 3.02 2.78 3.71 Self-Actualization versus Inhibition (n = 32) Chronbach's alpha .821 .651 .833 .738 M 106.02 101.90 105.57 104.65 GR < all others SD 3.13 2.38 3.02 2.72 Behavior Control (n = 30) Chronbach's alpha M SD Mental Health versus Mental Illness Social Adaptation versus Maladaptiveness Self-Actualization versus Inhibition Behavior Control .804 .768 .747 .800 97.40 101.64 98.84 97.91 GR > all others 3.19 3.31 2.80 3.25 Retired Students Teachers Teachers 106.34 106.46 106.22 101.71 102.54 104.81 105.24 104.94 103.10 97.38 98.35 102.14 NOTE: The scales contain the items given in Table 5. a. n denotes number of items. only Greeks think high Behavior Control is healthier than low Behavior Control. Similarly, Greeks rate Self-Actualization quite low. Compared to these two areas of personality, the differences in ratings of Mental Health and Social Adaptation are much smaller. Age differences are greater the more the Behavior Control dimension is involved. Normative opinions of older people Minsel et al. / POSMIVE MENTAL HEALTH 177 TABLE 7 Results of Analyses of Variance for the Four Scales (ANOVA for Main Effects Only) Source of Sum of Mean Significance Scale Factor Variation Squares df Squares F of F High versus Low Mental Health culture 722.40 3 240.80 24.00 .000 age 33.98 2 16.99 1.69 .185 explained 726.73 5 145.35 14.88 .000 residual 5,909.43 589 10.03 High versus Low Behavior Control culture 1,119.13 3 373.04 46.70 .000 age 1,230.64 2 615.32 77.04 .000 explained 2,553.45 5 510.69 63.94 .000 residual 4,704.59 589 7.99 Social Adaptation culture 368.39 3 122.80 13.05 .000 age 506.17 2 253.09 26.89 .000 explained 936.69 5 187.34 19.90 .000 residual 5,544.59 589 9.41 Self-Actualization culture 1,182.46 3 394.15 50.65 .000 age 265.98 2 132.99 17.09 .000 explained 1,483.86 5 296.77 38.14 .000 residual 4,583.18 589 7.78 tend to be in the direction of higher control; younger people appreciate lower control. There is also a strong age effect in the Behavior Control dimension in self-description (Becker, 1988). COMPARISON WITH THE EYSENCK SCALES Eysenck (1983) states that "the Social Desirability aspect of the lie score is probably of greatest importance in cross-cultural projects, since norms on this factor may reflect the degree of social permissiveness of the country or culture under observation, and the degree of conformity of the subject" (p. 383 if.). If this statement is valid, cultures with high means in Eysenck's Lie Scale (L) in Self-Description should also show high means in Behavior Control and/or Mental Health when describing the mentally healthy person 178 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY and vice versa. Behavior Control and Social Desirability should be correlated because item contents are similar with respect to norm orientation. Mental Health and Social Desirability should be similar because both include desir- able characteristics. Corresponding results were found in Shapiro's (1983a, 1983b) work. In our study Greek subjects exhibit the highest scores in Behavior Control and German and French subjects exhibit lowest scores. Americans show relatively high scores probably because of the higher average age of the subjects. These results indicate that in cultures where the degree of social permissiveness is low (i.e., Greece) people describe them- selves as norm oriented (high L scores), and they also think norm orientation is a healthy attitude. In cultures where social permissiveness is higher (i.e., Germany and France) people describe themselves as less norm oriented (low L scores), and they regard norm orientation as less healthy. Social permis- siveness may also vary with age. It can be expected that the permissiveness is greater than younger people are. The Eysenck group found corresponding results in different countries (Dimitriou & Eysenck, 1978; Eysenck, Escolar, Lobo, & Seva-Diaz, 1982). In our study a strong age effect on the Behavior Control factor was found. The older subjects are, the more healthy they rate Behavior Control and Social Adaptation. It is not clear whether these results are due to a historical value change in the culture or to ontogenesis (i.e., people themselves change over time) because we have only cross-sectional data. Nevertheless, it can be assumed that self-concepts (as measured by Eysenck's scales) are con- nected with ideal concepts (as measured in our study). Both seem to be influenced by the age-specific permissiveness regarding norm orientation in the society in which the individual lives. Let us now try to interpret cultural differences in ratings of Mental Health. We have two hypotheses. In Lynn's (1981) data the average Neuroticism scores for Greece and France were higher than for Germany and the United States. In our data we found corresponding results for Mental Health, that is, French and Greek scores are lower than U.S. and German scores. Subjects may rate the mentally healthy person according to the statistical norms valid in their country. Our second hypothesis is that the content of the Mental Health scale is better suited for the concept of mental health used by U.S. and German than by French and Greek teachers. For explaining cross-cultural differences in ratings of Self-Actualization we offer the following hypothesis. Lynn gives the per capita national income for different countries. In the United States this is four times as high as in Greece; Germany and France are situated in the middle, about 2.5 times as high as Greece. It can be hypothesized that self-actualization becomes impor- Minsel et al. / POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH 179 tant only when the "lower needs," for example those for economic security, are satisfied (Maslow, 1967). This hypothesis is supported by our data: Self- Actualization is lowest in Greece. Here not only the national income is low but also teachers earn relatively little compared to other academics employed by the state. CONCLUSION It can be concluded that for teachers in the four cultures studied, the most important components of mental health are a positive attitude towards other people, optimism, good problem-solving skills, autonomy and responsibility. With the exception of Greece, in all countries studied, Self-Actualization traits are rated as generally characteristic for a mentally healthy person. This is especially true for students. Greeks as well as retired teachers value Social Adaptation higher, that is they prefer behaviors which are more highly controlled. These differences may reflect a value change in a changing world: from authoritarian rules (i.e., those imposed by the church or by law) to orientation based on individualistic norms; and from formal, correct (i.e., cooperation, fairness) to informal, warm social relations (which might be described as sensitive, tolerant, and confident). The "new" social attitudes can be called more feminine in the sense that they are attitudes that belong to the traditional female stereotype. Maybe, "feminine" values have become more valuable for both sexes in recent times, at least in the more affluent and educated countries. The pursuit of wealth may be giving way to caring for people. For example, more young men are seeking helping careers in schools, hospitals, and other places where tradi- tionally these jobs have been held by women. Comparisons with other groups, such as people from different political parties, unemployed people, and people from other professions as well as samples from other countries would help to test the hypotheses arising from this study. NOTE 1. The questionnaire was constructed by Dr. Sheldon Korchin (University of California, Berkeley), Dr. Peter Becker and Dr. Beate Minsel (University of Trier, Germany). We would like to thank the following individuals who conducted the data collection: Dr. Anastasia Kalantzi-Azizi in Athens, Herman Hempel in Trier, Jonek Ziellenbach in Trier (who collected 180 JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY the French sample), Sylvia Korchin and Nina Gabelco in Berkeley, and Reiner Bastine from Heidelberg, who assisted with the California sample. REFERENCES Becker, P. (1988). Seelische Gesundheit und Verhaltenskontrolle: Zwei replizierbare, van- anzstarke Persbnlichkeitsfaktoren. Zeitschrift fur Differentielle und Diagnostische Psy- chologie, 9, 13-38. Becker, P., & Minsel, B. (1986). Psychologie der seelischen Gesundheit. Bd. 2. Gottingen: Hogrefe. Bijnen, E. J., van der Net, T.Z.J., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1986). On cross-cultural comparative studies with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 17, 3-16. Blum, G. S. (1953). Psychoanalytic theories of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill. Brislin, R. W. (1976). Translation-application and research. New York: Gardner Press. Brislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. In H. C. Triandis & 3. W. Berry (Eds.), Handbook of cross-culturalpsychology. Vol. 1I (pp. 389-444). Rockleigh: Allyn & Bacon. Cattell, R. B. (1967). The scientific analysis of personality. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Dimitriou, E. C., & Eysenck, S.B.G. (1978). National differences in personality: Greece and England. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2, 266-282. Draguns, J. G. (1984). Assessing mental health and disorder across cultures. In P. B. Pedersen, N. Sartorius, & A. J. Marsella (Eds.), Mental health services: The cross-cultural context (pp. 31-58). Beverly Hills: Sage. Ehlers, T., Afflerbach, M. L., & Moch, M. (1978). Zur Veranderung der Mutteransichten fiber Selbstandigkeitserziehung in den letzten 20 Jahren. Berichte aus dem Fachbereich Psy- chologie der Philipps-Universitdt Marburg, 63. Marburg: Universitait. Eysenck, H. J. (1987). Cross-cultural comparisons. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 17, 506-515. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S.B.G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Inventory. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Eysenck, S.B.G. (1983). One approach to cross-cultural studies of personality. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35, 381-391. Eysenck, S.B.G., Escolar, V., Lobo, A., & Seva-Diaz, A. (1982). Diferencias transculturales de personalidad: Espana e Inglaterra. Revista de Psiquiatria y Psicologia Mdica, 15, 283-293. Lukesch, H. (1976). ElterlicheErziehungsstile. Psychologische und soziologischeBedingungen. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Lynn, R. (1981). Cross-cultural differences in neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism. In R. Lynn (Eds.), Dimensions of personality (pp. 263-281). Oxford: Pergamon. Maslow, A. H. (1967). A theory of metamotivation: The biological rooting of the value-life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 7, 93-127. Pawlik, K. (1968). Dimensionen des Verhaltens. Bern: Huber. Peabody, D. (1987). Selecting representative trait adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 59-71. Shapiro, D. H. (1983a). A factor analytic study of perceived characteristics of person, man, and woman with high and low psychological health. Psychologia, 26, 142-158. Minsel et al. / POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH 181 Shapiro, D. H. (1983b). Self-control: Refinement of a construct. Biofeedback andSelf-Regulation, 8,443-460. Shapiro, D. H. (1985). The relationship of self-control to psychological health and social desirability. Psychologia, 28, 237-248. Soueif, M. I., Eysenck, H. J., & White, P. O. (1969). Ajoint factor study of the Guilford, Cattell, and Eysenck scales. In H. J. Eysenck & S.B.G. Eysenck (Eds.), Personality structure and measurement (pp. 171-193). San Diego: Knapp. Wemer, O., & Campbell, D. (1970). Translating, working through interpreters, and the problem of decentering. In R. Naroll & R. Cohen (Eds.), A handbook of methods in cultural anthropology (pp. 398-420). New York: Natural History Press. Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982). Measuring sex stereotypes. Beverly Hills: Sage. Beate Minsel taught and performed research in personality and clinical psychology at Trier University, Germany, with co-worker Peter Becker until 1987. She is now working at the State Institute of Early Education and Family Research in Munich. Her research interests include positive mental health and prevention of individuals andfamilies. Peter Becker is a professor of psychology at Trier University, Germany. His research interests include personality, psychopathology, and clinical psychology. In addition to other articles and books, he haspublished severalpsychological tests and books onposi- tive mental health, including Psycholgie der seelischen Gesundheit, Volume 1 (Hogrefe, 1982) and Volume 2 (Hogrefe, 1986) coauthored with Beate MinseL SheldonJ. Korchin (Ph.D., 1946) worked ina variety of academic, clinicalpractice, and research settings. For the last 25years of his life, he was director of the Graduate Clinical Program at the University of California, Berkeley. His research interests ranged broadly in thefields of clinicalpsychology andpersonality, in the lastyears emphasizing history and theory, as represented in his book Modern Clinical Psychology (Basic Books, 1976). He passed away in March 1989. </meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-wrap></article-meta></front><back><notes><p>1. The questionnaire was constructed by Dr. Sheldon Korchin (University of California, Berkeley), Dr. Peter Becker and Dr. Beate Minsel (University of Trier, Germany). We would like to thank the following individuals who conducted the data collection: Dr. Anastasia Kalantzi-Azizi in Athens, Herman Hempel in Trier, Jonek Ziellenbach in Trier (who collected the French sample), Sylvia Korchin and Nina Gabelco in Berkeley, and Reiner Bastine from Heidelberg, who assisted with the California sample.</p></notes><ref-list><ref><citation citation-type="journal" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Becker, P.</surname></name> (<year>1988</year>). <article-title>Seelische Gesundheit und Verhaltenskontrolle: Zwei replizierbare, varianzstarke Persönlichkeitsfaktoren</article-title>. <source>Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie</source>, <volume>9</volume>, <fpage>13</fpage>-<lpage>38</lpage>.</citation></ref><ref><citation citation-type="book" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Becker, P.</surname></name> , & <name name-style="western"><surname>Minsel, B.</surname></name> (<year>1986</year>). <source>Psychologie der seelischen Gesundheit</source>. 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L.</surname></name> (<year>1982</year>). <source>Measuring sex stereotypes</source>. <publisher-loc>Beverly Hills</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Sage</publisher-name>.</citation></ref></ref-list></back></article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health</title><subTitle>Two Orthogonal Main Factors Replicable in Four Countries</subTitle></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" lang="en" contentType="CDATA"><title>A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health</title><subTitle>Two Orthogonal Main Factors Replicable in Four Countries</subTitle></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Beate</namePart><namePart type="family">Minsel</namePart><affiliation>Universität der Bundeswehr Munchen</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Peter</namePart><namePart type="family">Becker</namePart><affiliation>Universität Trier</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Sheldon J.</namePart><namePart type="family">Korchin</namePart><affiliation>University of California, Berkeley</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article"></genre><originInfo><publisher>Sage Publications</publisher><place><placeTerm type="text">Sage CA: Thousand Oaks, CA</placeTerm></place><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">1991-06</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">1991</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm></language><physicalDescription><internetMediaType>text/html</internetMediaType></physicalDescription><abstract lang="en">Student teachers, working teachers, and retired teachers (N = 595) from four countries (France, Germany, Greece, and the United States) completed a questionnaire containing 186 items in Likert format with instructions to describe the mentally healthy person. Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied.</abstract><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0022-0221</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1552-5422</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">JCC</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spjcc</identifier><part><date>1991</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>22</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>2</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>157</start><end>181</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">AA4510CC490788DD76A7458B964B532D5F2CFE62</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1177/0022022191222001</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.1177_0022022191222001</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource>SAGE</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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