A survey of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh
Identifieur interne : 000207 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000206; suivant : 000208A survey of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh
Auteurs : Mohammad Humayun Kabir ; Nur Hasan ; Md Mahfuzur Rahman ; Md Ashikur Rahman ; Jakia Alam Khan ; Nazia Tasnim Hoque ; Md Ruhul Quddus Bhuiyan ; Sadia Moin Mou ; Rownak Jahan ; Mohammed RahmatullahSource :
- Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine [ 1746-4269 ] ; 2014.
Abstract
The number of tribes present within Bangladesh has been estimated to approximate one hundred and fifty. Information on traditional medicinal practices, particularly of the smaller tribes and their clans is lacking. It was the objective of the study to document the tribal medicinal practices of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe, which clan can be found residing in Dolusora Tripura Palli of Moulvibazar district of Bangladesh. A further objective was to determine the extent of the community households who still prefer traditional treatment to other forms of treatment, particularly allopathic treatment.
Interviews of the tribal healer and the tribal community regarding their ethnomedicinal practices were carried out with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method. All together 67 clan members were interviewed including the Headman, tribal healer, 19 Heads of households and 46 other adult members of the clan. Information on number of members of household, their age, gender, educational status, occupation of working household members and preferred mode of treatment was obtained through the semi-structured questionnaire. In the guided field-walk method, the healer took the interviewers on field-walks through areas from where he collected his medicinal plants, pointed out the plants, and described their uses.
The clan had a total of 135 people distributed into 20 households and had only one traditional healer. Use of medicinal plants, wearing of amulets, and worship of the evil god ‘Bura debta’ constituted the traditional medicinal practices of the clan for treatment of diseases. The healer used a total of 44 medicinal plants distributed into 34 families for treatment of various ailments like pain, coughs, cold, gastrointestinal disorders, cuts and wounds, diabetes, malaria, heart disorders, and paralysis.
Available scientific reports validate the use of a number of plants by the traditional healer. A number of the plants used by the clan healer had reported similar uses in Ayurveda, but differ considerably in their therapeutic uses from that reported for other tribes in Bangladesh. The present survey also indicated that in recent years the Deb barma clan members are inclining more towards allopathic medicine.
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DOI: 10.1186/1746-4269-10-19
PubMed: 24502444
PubMed Central: 3996145
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">A survey of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh</title><author><name sortKey="Kabir, Mohammad Humayun" sort="Kabir, Mohammad Humayun" uniqKey="Kabir M" first="Mohammad Humayun" last="Kabir">Mohammad Humayun Kabir</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hasan, Nur" sort="Hasan, Nur" uniqKey="Hasan N" first="Nur" last="Hasan">Nur Hasan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rahman, Md Mahfuzur" sort="Rahman, Md Mahfuzur" uniqKey="Rahman M" first="Md Mahfuzur" last="Rahman">Md Mahfuzur Rahman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rahman, Md Ashikur" sort="Rahman, Md Ashikur" uniqKey="Rahman M" first="Md Ashikur" last="Rahman">Md Ashikur Rahman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Khan, Jakia Alam" sort="Khan, Jakia Alam" uniqKey="Khan J" first="Jakia Alam" last="Khan">Jakia Alam Khan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hoque, Nazia Tasnim" sort="Hoque, Nazia Tasnim" uniqKey="Hoque N" first="Nazia Tasnim" last="Hoque">Nazia Tasnim Hoque</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bhuiyan, Md Ruhul Quddus" sort="Bhuiyan, Md Ruhul Quddus" uniqKey="Bhuiyan M" first="Md Ruhul Quddus" last="Bhuiyan">Md Ruhul Quddus Bhuiyan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mou, Sadia Moin" sort="Mou, Sadia Moin" uniqKey="Mou S" first="Sadia Moin" last="Mou">Sadia Moin Mou</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jahan, Rownak" sort="Jahan, Rownak" uniqKey="Jahan R" first="Rownak" last="Jahan">Rownak Jahan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rahmatullah, Mohammed" sort="Rahmatullah, Mohammed" uniqKey="Rahmatullah M" first="Mohammed" last="Rahmatullah">Mohammed Rahmatullah</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I2">Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Development Alternative, House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new), Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">24502444</idno><idno type="pmc">3996145</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3996145</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3996145</idno><idno type="doi">10.1186/1746-4269-10-19</idno><date when="2014">2014</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000207</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000207</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">A survey of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh</title><author><name sortKey="Kabir, Mohammad Humayun" sort="Kabir, Mohammad Humayun" uniqKey="Kabir M" first="Mohammad Humayun" last="Kabir">Mohammad Humayun Kabir</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hasan, Nur" sort="Hasan, Nur" uniqKey="Hasan N" first="Nur" last="Hasan">Nur Hasan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rahman, Md Mahfuzur" sort="Rahman, Md Mahfuzur" uniqKey="Rahman M" first="Md Mahfuzur" last="Rahman">Md Mahfuzur Rahman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rahman, Md Ashikur" sort="Rahman, Md Ashikur" uniqKey="Rahman M" first="Md Ashikur" last="Rahman">Md Ashikur Rahman</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Khan, Jakia Alam" sort="Khan, Jakia Alam" uniqKey="Khan J" first="Jakia Alam" last="Khan">Jakia Alam Khan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hoque, Nazia Tasnim" sort="Hoque, Nazia Tasnim" uniqKey="Hoque N" first="Nazia Tasnim" last="Hoque">Nazia Tasnim Hoque</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Bhuiyan, Md Ruhul Quddus" sort="Bhuiyan, Md Ruhul Quddus" uniqKey="Bhuiyan M" first="Md Ruhul Quddus" last="Bhuiyan">Md Ruhul Quddus Bhuiyan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mou, Sadia Moin" sort="Mou, Sadia Moin" uniqKey="Mou S" first="Sadia Moin" last="Mou">Sadia Moin Mou</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jahan, Rownak" sort="Jahan, Rownak" uniqKey="Jahan R" first="Rownak" last="Jahan">Rownak Jahan</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rahmatullah, Mohammed" sort="Rahmatullah, Mohammed" uniqKey="Rahmatullah M" first="Mohammed" last="Rahmatullah">Mohammed Rahmatullah</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I1">Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="I2">Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Development Alternative, House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new), Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine</title><idno type="eISSN">1746-4269</idno><imprint><date when="2014">2014</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Background</title><p>The number of tribes present within Bangladesh has been estimated to approximate one hundred and fifty. Information on traditional medicinal practices, particularly of the smaller tribes and their clans is lacking. It was the objective of the study to document the tribal medicinal practices of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe, which clan can be found residing in Dolusora Tripura Palli of Moulvibazar district of Bangladesh. A further objective was to determine the extent of the community households who still prefer traditional treatment to other forms of treatment, particularly allopathic treatment.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>Interviews of the tribal healer and the tribal community regarding their ethnomedicinal practices were carried out with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method. All together 67 clan members were interviewed including the Headman, tribal healer, 19 Heads of households and 46 other adult members of the clan. Information on number of members of household, their age, gender, educational status, occupation of working household members and preferred mode of treatment was obtained through the semi-structured questionnaire. In the guided field-walk method, the healer took the interviewers on field-walks through areas from where he collected his medicinal plants, pointed out the plants, and described their uses.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>The clan had a total of 135 people distributed into 20 households and had only one traditional healer. Use of medicinal plants, wearing of amulets, and worship of the evil god ‘Bura debta’ constituted the traditional medicinal practices of the clan for treatment of diseases. The healer used a total of 44 medicinal plants distributed into 34 families for treatment of various ailments like pain, coughs, cold, gastrointestinal disorders, cuts and wounds, diabetes, malaria, heart disorders, and paralysis.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Available scientific reports validate the use of a number of plants by the traditional healer. A number of the plants used by the clan healer had reported similar uses in Ayurveda, but differ considerably in their therapeutic uses from that reported for other tribes in Bangladesh. The present survey also indicated that in recent years the Deb barma clan members are inclining more towards allopathic medicine.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sofowora, A" uniqKey="Sofowora A">A Sofowora</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Gilani, Ah" uniqKey="Gilani A">AH Gilani</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rahman, Au" uniqKey="Rahman A">AU Rahman</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Murmu, M" uniqKey="Murmu M">M Murmu</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Rahmatullah, M" uniqKey="Rahmatullah M">M Rahmatullah</name></author><author><name sortKey="Mollik, Mah" uniqKey="Mollik M">MAH Mollik</name></author><author><name sortKey="Rahman, Ms" uniqKey="Rahman M">MS Rahman</name></author><author><name sortKey="Hasan, Mn" uniqKey="Hasan M">MN 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">J Ethnobiol Ethnomed</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">J Ethnobiol Ethnomed</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1746-4269</issn><publisher><publisher-name>BioMed Central</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24502444</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3996145</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">1746-4269-10-19</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/1746-4269-10-19</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>A survey of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A1"><name><surname>Kabir</surname><given-names>Mohammad Humayun</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>humayunkabir44@yahoo.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A2"><name><surname>Hasan</surname><given-names>Nur</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>nhpiyal@gmail.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A3"><name><surname>Rahman</surname><given-names>Md Mahfuzur</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>nmrashik@yahoo.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A4"><name><surname>Rahman</surname><given-names>Md Ashikur</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>asif0911@yahoo.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A5"><name><surname>Khan</surname><given-names>Jakia Alam</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>jakiapharm@gmail.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A6"><name><surname>Hoque</surname><given-names>Nazia Tasnim</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>nazia.tasnim@yahoo.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A7"><name><surname>Bhuiyan</surname><given-names>Md Ruhul Quddus</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>rfasbir@yahoo.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A8"><name><surname>Mou</surname><given-names>Sadia Moin</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>sadia_moin0270@yahoo.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" id="A9"><name><surname>Jahan</surname><given-names>Rownak</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><email>rownak86@hotmail.com</email></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes" id="A10"><name><surname>Rahmatullah</surname><given-names>Mohammed</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I1">1</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="I2">2</xref><email>rahamatm@hotmail.com</email></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="I1"><label>1</label>Department of Pharmacy, University of Development Alternative, Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</aff><aff id="I2"><label>2</label>Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Development Alternative, House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new), Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh</aff><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2014</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>6</day><month>2</month><year>2014</year></pub-date><volume>10</volume><fpage>19</fpage><lpage>19</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>27</day><month>8</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>4</day><month>2</month><year>2014</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2014 Kabir et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2014</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Kabir et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.</copyright-holder><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0"><license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0</ext-link>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/10/1/19"></self-uri><abstract><sec><title>Background</title><p>The number of tribes present within Bangladesh has been estimated to approximate one hundred and fifty. Information on traditional medicinal practices, particularly of the smaller tribes and their clans is lacking. It was the objective of the study to document the tribal medicinal practices of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe, which clan can be found residing in Dolusora Tripura Palli of Moulvibazar district of Bangladesh. A further objective was to determine the extent of the community households who still prefer traditional treatment to other forms of treatment, particularly allopathic treatment.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>Interviews of the tribal healer and the tribal community regarding their ethnomedicinal practices were carried out with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method. All together 67 clan members were interviewed including the Headman, tribal healer, 19 Heads of households and 46 other adult members of the clan. Information on number of members of household, their age, gender, educational status, occupation of working household members and preferred mode of treatment was obtained through the semi-structured questionnaire. In the guided field-walk method, the healer took the interviewers on field-walks through areas from where he collected his medicinal plants, pointed out the plants, and described their uses.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>The clan had a total of 135 people distributed into 20 households and had only one traditional healer. Use of medicinal plants, wearing of amulets, and worship of the evil god ‘Bura debta’ constituted the traditional medicinal practices of the clan for treatment of diseases. The healer used a total of 44 medicinal plants distributed into 34 families for treatment of various ailments like pain, coughs, cold, gastrointestinal disorders, cuts and wounds, diabetes, malaria, heart disorders, and paralysis.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Available scientific reports validate the use of a number of plants by the traditional healer. A number of the plants used by the clan healer had reported similar uses in Ayurveda, but differ considerably in their therapeutic uses from that reported for other tribes in Bangladesh. The present survey also indicated that in recent years the Deb barma clan members are inclining more towards allopathic medicine.</p></sec></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>Indigenous knowledge</kwd><kwd>Allopathic medicine</kwd><kwd>Ethnomedicine</kwd><kwd>Bangladesh</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><body><sec><title>Background</title><p>Since the advent of human beings, it is very much possible that they were afflicted with diseases and in course of time started using various ingredients including plants, animals, insects, or minerals for treatment. It has been reported that human beings were aware of the medicinal properties of plants even around 5,000 years ago [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>]. Since then, even after the introduction of modern or allopathic medicine, medicinal plants have played a vital role in the traditional medicinal systems of many countries, as well as being the sources of many modern drugs. Indeed, it has been reported that a number of important allopathic drugs like aspirin, atropine, ephedrine, digoxin, morphine, quinine, reserpine, artemisinin and tubocurarine have been discovered through close observations of traditional medicinal practices of indigenous peoples [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>].</p><p>Bangladesh is home to a number of tribes or indigenous communities. Latest ethnographic research suggests that the number of tribes within the country approximates 150 instead of the previously estimated about a dozen tribes [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>]. Most of the indigenous communities and particularly the smaller ones (i.e. communities whose population is below 500 persons) are on the verge of disappearance because of decline in population, loss in tribal habitat, or because of merging with the mainstream Bengali-speaking population. As a result, the culture and knowledge possessed by these tribes are also fast disappearing, including their traditional medicinal practices. Adequate documentation of such knowledge, and especially traditional medicinal practices, is important because tribal medicinal practitioners or healers through long association with plants around their vicinity have acquired quite extensive knowledge on the medicinal properties of these various plant species. Notably, tribal medicinal knowledge is usually passed from one generation to the next through members of the family or persons serving as apprentices to the practitioner. Thus such tribal medicinal knowledge reflects knowledge acquired and accumulated over centuries and even possibly millennia.</p><p>Scientists as well as general human beings can gain a considerable amount of information from adequate documentation of tribal medicinal practices. Adequate documentation can not only indicate the possible therapeutic values of any given plant species, but also provide scientists with a general background on the basis of which they can study the plant species for isolation of bioactive constituents. Documentation of medicinal plants used in the country in various traditional medicinal systems existing within the country can also spur conservation efforts of these plants, many of which are getting endangered through continuous deforestation and increase of human habitat. Bangladesh has several ancient medicinal systems, which are still in practice. Although to a certain extent, some of these various traditional medicinal systems influence and overlap one another, these systems can broadly be classified as Ayurveda, Unani, homeopathy, and folk and tribal medicine. Of these systems, Ayurveda, Unani, and folk and tribal medicinal systems rely quite extensively on medicinal plants, which are used in simple or complex formulations for treatment of different diseases. Among these systems, Ayurveda and Unani are more organized and each system has their own well-established formulary, and practitioners who graduate from Ayurveda or Unani colleges in the country. On the contrary, folk medicinal practitioners (known as Kavirajes or Vaidyas) and tribal medicinal practitioners each have their own field of expertise and unique repertoire of medicinal plants, which can vary greatly from tribe to tribe and between individual Kavirajes of even the same area.</p><p>Towards building up a comprehensive database of medicinal plants of the country and their traditional uses, we had been interviewing and documenting the traditional medicinal practices of folk and tribal medicinal practitioners for a number of years [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>]. The Tripura (also known as Tripuri, Tiprah or Tipperah) tribe is one such indigenous community in Bangladesh, whose various clans can be found in the Chittagong and Sylhet Divisions in the southeast and northeast parts, respectively, of the country. The various clans of the Tripura tribe include Deb barma (also known as Tiprah), Reang or Bru, Jamatia, Koloi, Noatia, Murasing, Halam, Harbang, and Uchoi. We have previously documented the ethnomedicinal practices of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribal community residing in Chittagong Division of Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>].</p><p>The objective of the present study was to document the ethnomedicinal practices of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe residing in Dolusora Tripura Palli, which falls within Moulvibazar district in Sylhet Division of Bangladesh (Figure <xref ref-type="fig" rid="F1">1</xref>). The whole clan consisted of 20 households and had a total population of 135. They resided in a single village named Dolusora Tripura Palli, the Palli name indicating village or area of residence. The Palli itself fell within Moulvibazar district of Sylhet Division in the northeastern part of Bangladesh. The Headman, namely, Mahendra Lal Deb barma of Tripura Palli is considered a renowned person among the Deb barma clan members. The clan had only one tribal healer, named Shorbanando Tripura (otherwise also known as Shorbanando Deb barma). Every individual household had a person acting as the Head of the household. The Head of household was in all cases the most elderly but still active member of the house irrespective of gender. A secondary objective was to conduct a survey among this tribal community to determine the extent of preference for tribal medicine versus allopathic medicine within members of the community.</p><fig id="F1" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p><bold>Map of Bangladesh showing survey site area. (A)</bold> Bangladesh with Moulvibazar district highlighted in red and <bold>(B)</bold> Dolusora Tripura Palli (site of survey, indicated with a yellow dot) in Moulvibazar district.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="1746-4269-10-19-1"></graphic></fig><p>The Deb barma clan claimed themselves to be Hindus. They worshipped the Hindu god ‘Shiva’ and the Hindu goddess ‘Kali’. However, they mentioned to the interviewers that they also worshipped fourteen other gods and goddesses of their own. The Headman mentioned that once upon a time all Tripura clans were animists, but now all clans have become Hindus but still retained many of their animist traditions. The Deb barma clan also mentioned that they believe in evil spirits and demons. Among the gods and goddesses that the Deb barma clan believed in was the god whom the Headman referred to as ‘Bura debta’, signifying old god. Bura Debta was considered an evil god by the Deb Barma clan and it was considered that the clan must always appease him through ‘pujas’ (worship) and ‘archanas’ (offerings). As a result, the Deb barma clan performs two types of pujas per year in which offerings are made to satisfy Bura debta.</p><p>It was mentioned by the Deb barmas that disease occurs to a person if Bura debta gets angry for some reason and curses that person. However, the Deb barmas also said that they believe that diseases can be caused by evil spirits and demons who reside in the forest areas. When evil spirits cause disease(s), according to them, it is known as ‘upuri’ (paranormal diseases). Such paranormal diseases (like being possessed by ‘genies’ or ‘ghosts’) are due to black magic, and the clan believes that diseases caused by black magic can be cured through the interventions of a Tantrik, i.e. a person who is knowledgeable in and can perform black magic. On the other hand, a traditional medicinal healer (Kaviraj) can cure them from diseases caused through the wrath of Bura debta. The Kaviraj can also be a Tantrik. Thus Deb barma clan traditional healing is a mixture of medicinal plant formulations received from the Kaviraj, wearing of amulets as prescribed by the Kaviraj, pujas of Bura debta, as well as counter-black magic performed by a Tantrik. However, at present, the Deb barma clan did not have any specialized Tantriks among them; they only had one traditional medicinal healer, who also took care of problems like being possessed by ‘genies’ or ‘ghosts’.</p><p>Since ethnomedicinal surveys of various tribes and folk medicinal practitioners are still at an early stage in Bangladesh, the primary objective of the present study was to document the hitherto unreported traditional medicinal practices of the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe. Secondary objectives were (I) to determine whether such medicinal practices have been influenced by the most ancient form of traditional medicine in Bangladesh, namely Ayurveda, (II) to determine whether the use of medicinal plants by the Deb barma healer could be scientifically validated on the basis of available scientific studies on pharmacological properties of any specific plant, (III) to analyze comparative uses of the medicinal plants by the Deb barma healer with other reported ethnomedicinal uses from Bangladesh, and (IV) to determine to what extent individual households of the Deb barma clan are still utilizing the services of their traditional healer or in the present age switching to other modes of treatment like allopathic medicine.</p></sec><sec sec-type="methods"><title>Methods</title><p>The survey was conducted between August 2012 and May 2013 at Dolusora Tripura Palli (Palli meaning village). A number of visits (8, each visit lasting 2-4 days) were made to the Deb barma clan to build up rapport with the Headman, healer, and members of the Deb barma clan. Prior Informed Consent was obtained from the Headman, healer, Heads of households and adult members of the clan to interview them as to their traditional medicinal practices (healer) and to their choice of traditional medicine versus allopathic medicine (rest of the persons interviewed). Essentially, the Headman, healer and Heads of households provided the answers with other adult members of households concurring with the opinions of the Head of each respective household. As such, although 67 members were interviewed, the actual number of actively responding members were 21, comprising of 1 healer [male], 1 Headman [also the Head of a household (male)], and 19 other Heads of households [13 males and 6 females]. With the exception of 2 Heads of households (both males) who mentioned their ages as 43 and 47 years, the rest of the Heads of households (including the Headman) and the healer were above 50 years old. Allopathic medicine was provided to them by an allopathic doctor, who belonged to a NGO (non-Governmental organization), which organization worked in the general area of Srimangal (where the Tripura Palli was located) among the rural people, including both mainstream Bengali-speaking people, as well as the Deb barma clan of the Tripuras. Actual interviews of all persons, and especially the traditional healer were conducted with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire and the guided field-walk method of Martin [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>] and Maundu [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>]. Through the semi-structured questionnaire, information was obtained from the healer and other clan members as to their age, gender, educational status, occupation and monthly income, number of family members, food habits, what they thought of diseases as well as medical preferences. The healer was further queried with the help of the semi-structured questionnaire as to plants used, disease(s) treated, mode of collection and preservation of plants, formulations, mode of administration, and any precautions which needed to be followed during medication period together with any other details which the healer wanted to provide. Briefly, in the guided field-walk method, the healer took the interviewers on guided field-walks through areas from where he collected his medicinal plants, pointed out the plants, and mentioned their use(s).</p><p>The adult clan members as well as a few young members (under 18 years of age) worked as agricultural laborers in a nearby tea estate, where the female members were engaged in plucking tea leaves, and the male members engaged in maintaining tea gardens (including plantation, fertilization, weeding, and watering). The socio-economic status of the clan households were poor and every household reported that their daily income was below the poverty level, which has been defined by the Government of Bangladesh as less than US$ 1 per day. The adult clan members were illiterate; a few children attended schools but were quickly taken out of school before they reached Grade VI so as to work in the tea estate and augment the family income. Housing and conditions of living were in a primitive state with poor hygienic conditions and lack of proper sanitation facilities.</p><p>It was observed that all plants used by the healer were collected within Dolusora Tripura Palli or from adjoining sites, i.e. within 10 km of Dolusora Tripura Palli. Plants or plant parts were collected free of cost. Most plants were perennial, i.e. available throughout the year. If any plant part was not available (e.g. fruits) throughout the year, the healer used dried fruits as in the cases of <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic>, <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic>, and <italic>Terminalia chebula. Allium sativum</italic>, another plant used by the healer is also an annual plant, but bulbs of this plant (garlic) were used, which were available throughout the year in the dried form. However, if any plant or plant part necessary for a formulation was not found, the healer did not treat the disease that the plant or plant part was intended to be used. Plant specimens were photographed and collected on the spot. They were then pressed, dried and brought back to Dhaka. Identification of plants was done by Mr. Manjur-Ul-Kadir Mia, ex-Curator and Principal Scientific Officer of the Bangladesh National Herbarium. Voucher specimens were deposited with the Medicinal Plant Collection Wing of the University of Development Alternative. Interviews were conducted in the Bengali (Bangla) language; all Tripura community members were found to be quite fluent with this language of the mainstream population through long-term association with the mainstream people. The Bangladesh Government has opened a Bangla-medium primary school near the Tripura Palli and several students attended or are still attending the school.</p></sec><sec sec-type="results"><title>Results</title><sec><title>Medicinal plants and diseases treated by the tribal healer</title><p>Of the twenty households of the Deb barma clan, the Head of household of 14 families were males and that of 6 families were females, these persons being the most elderly but still active (i.e. working) members of the house. The traditional medicinal healer mentioned that he uses a total of 44 medicinal plants for treatment of a variety of ailments. These plants were distributed into 34 families and are shown in Table <xref ref-type="table" rid="T1">1</xref>. The various ailments treated by the healer included malaria, skin infections, tuberculosis, respiratory disorders, bleeding from external cuts and wounds, chest pain, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, burning sensations during urination, bone fracture, snake bite, toothache, headache, bleeding from gums, paralysis, skin disorders, helminthiasis, chicken pox, diabetes, jaundice, eye disorders, weakness, and being possessed by ‘genies’ or ‘ghosts’. Two plants parts (bulb of <italic>Crinum latifolium</italic> along with bulb of <italic>Allium sativum</italic>) were also used in combination for treatment of bloating in cattle (see Serial Number 5), and one plant, <italic>Scoparia dulcis</italic>, used to prepare wine (See Serial Number 37). In this context, it is interesting to note that the clan healer advised wearing an amulet containing the plant, <italic>Asparagus racemosus</italic>, for all diseased persons, irrespective of the disease or other medicinal plants used. This particular plant was considered to have special magical properties that appease Bura debta.</p><table-wrap position="float" id="T1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Medicinal plants and formulations of the Deb barma clan healer</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups" border="1"><colgroup><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col></colgroup><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left"><bold>Serial number</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Scientific name (voucher specimen number)</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Family name (perennial/annual)</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Local name (english name)</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Parts used</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Disease, symptoms, formulations, and administration</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">1<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Andrographis paniculata</italic> Nees MPCW-UODA 3032/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Acanthaceae (Annual)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Boner kalomegh (Green chirayta)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Malaria. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is orally taken.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">2<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><italic>Justicia adhatoda</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3033/2013<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Acanthaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Shada bashok (Malabar nut)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Skin infections. Young leaves are made into a paste and applied as poultice over infected area.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tuberculosis. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is orally taken.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">3<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><italic>Justicia gendarussa</italic> Burm. f. MPCW-UODA 3036/2013<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Acanthaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Kala bashok (Black adusa)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Leaf, stem<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Coughs. Leaves are boiled in water. ½ poa (local measure, 4 poas approximate 1 kg) of the decoction is taken orally thrice daily.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">Malaria. Crushed leaves and stems are boiled in water followed by drinking the water daily till cure.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">4<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Aerva sanguinolenta</italic> (L.) Blume MPCW-UODA 3038/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Amaranthaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Iodine pata (Kapok bush)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">To stop bleeding from external cuts and wounds. Leaves are crushed between the fingers and applied to cuts and wounds.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">5<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><italic>Crinum latifolium</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3039/2013<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Amaryllidaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Gruna, bon roshun (Milk and wine lily)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Bulb<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Chest pain (symptoms: pain in the chest area, usually external muscle pain). Juice obtained from crushed bulb is taken orally.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bloating in cattle. Bulbs of <italic>Crinum latifolium</italic> are fed to cattle along with bulbs of <italic>Allium sativum</italic>.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">6<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Centella asiatica</italic> (L.) Urb. MPCW-UODA 3040/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Apiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Thankuni (Asiatic pennywort)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf, stem<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Stomach disorders (stomach pain, flatulency). Juice obtained from crushed leaves and stems is taken orally.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">7<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Alstonia scholaris</italic> (L.) R. Br. MPCW-UODA 3044/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Apocynaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Chaitan (Blackboard tree)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf sap<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Whitish layer formation on tongue. Leaf sap is mixed with honey and applied to tongue.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">8<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Colocasia esculenta</italic> (L.) Schott. MPCW-UODA 3046/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Araceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fan kochu (Taro)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tuber<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Rheumatic pain. Dried and powdered tubers are taken orally.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">9<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Borassus flabellifer</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3047/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Arecaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Taal (Palmyra palm)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Sap<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">See <italic>Hyptis suaveolens</italic>.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">10<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Asparagus racemosus</italic> Willd. MPCW-UODA 3048/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Asparagaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Shotomul (Indian asparagus)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Whole plant<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">All diseases. Whole plant is put in an amulet which is to be tied by the patient around the waist with a piece of thread and worn till the disease is cured.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">11<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Ageratum conyzoides</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3049/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Asteraceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Ujaru (Mexican ageratum)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Root<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Stomach disorders. Juice obtained from crushed roots is orally taken.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">12<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Garcinia cowa</italic> Roxb. MPCW-UODA 3050/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Clusiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Kau fol (Cowa-mangosteen)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fruit<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Coughs, cold. Fruits are eaten.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">13<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic> (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. MPCW-UODA 3053/2013<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Combretaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Arjun (Arjun tree)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Bark<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Chest pain due to heart disorders (symptoms: chest pain more so when walking or working, feeling of constriction of heart, breathlessness), burning sensations during urination, bone fracture.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bark is boiled in water followed by drinking the water for chest pain and burning sensations during urination. Paste prepared from bark of <italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic> and clove of <italic>Allium sativum</italic> is applied as poultice over the fractured area.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">14<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> (Gaertn.) Roxb. MPCW-UODA 3055/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Combretaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bohera (Beleric myrobalan)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fruit, leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">See <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic>.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">15<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Terminalia chebula</italic> Retz. MPCW-UODA 3056/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Combretaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Horitoki (Chebulic myrobalan)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fruit, leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">See <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic>.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">16<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Sansevieria hyacinthoides</italic> (L.) Druce MPCW-UODA 3058/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Dracaenaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Dudh raj (Iguana tail)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Snake bite, snake repellent. Juice obtained from crushed leaf is applied to snake-bitten area. Leaves are kept in rooms to repel snakes.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">17<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Jatropha curcas</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3060/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Euphorbiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Kangala (Physic nut)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tooth ache. Leaves are chewed and the leaf juice swallowed.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">18<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3061/2013<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Euphorbiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Amloki (Indian gooseberry)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Fruit, leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bleeding from gums, loss of appetite, headache. Unripe fruits are chewed to stop bleeding from gums. Dried fruits of <italic>Phylanthus emblica</italic>, <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> and <italic>Terminalia chebula</italic> are soaked in water followed by drinking the water to increase appetite. Fruits of <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> and wood of <italic>Santalum album</italic> are made into a paste with rose water and applied to the forehead for headache.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">Paralysis. Juice obtained from a combination of crushed leaves of <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic>, <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> and <italic>Terminalia chebula</italic> was massaged on the paralyzed area.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">19<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Phyllanthus reticulatus</italic> Poir. MPCW-UODA 3062/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Euphorbiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Khaukora (Sour grapes)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Stem<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Diarrhea in children. Stems are twisted and tied loosely around the neck of children.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">20<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Senna alata</italic> (L.) Roxb. MPCW-UODA 3063/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fabaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Daud pata (Candle bush)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Eczema. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is topically applied.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">21<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Hyptis suaveolens</italic> (L.) Poit. MPCW-UODA 3064/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Lamiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tukma (Pignut)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fruit<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Physical weakness, sense of hotness in head. Powdered fruits of <italic>Hyptis suaveolens</italic> are mixed with tal mishri (sugar obtained from sap of <italic>Borassus flabellifer</italic>) and taken orally.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">22<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Leucas aspera</italic> (Willd.) Link MPCW-UODA 3065/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Lamiaceae (Annual)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Deo kolosh (Common leucas)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Flower<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Coughs in infant. Juice obtained from crushed flower is mixed with mother’s milk and orally administered.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">23<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Ocimum gratissimum</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3066/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Lamiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Shada tulsi (African basil)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Rheumatic pain, coughs, mucus. A piece of cloth is soaked with juice obtained from crushed leaves is tied to areas affected by rheumatic pain. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is taken with honey for coughs and mucus.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">24<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><italic>Allium sativum</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3067/2013<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Liliaceae (Annual)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Roshun<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Bulb<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">See <italic>Crinum latifolium</italic>.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">See <italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic>.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">25<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Lawsonia inermis</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3070/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Lythraceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Mehedi (Henna)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Cuts and wounds, cracked skin, diabetes, burning sensations during urination. Paste of leaves is applied to cuts and wounds or cracked skin. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is orally taken for diabetes and burning sensations during urination.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">26<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Melastoma malabathricum</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3072/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Melastomataceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Luiki (Malabar melastome)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">To stop bleeding from external cuts and wounds. Crushed leaves are applied as poultice over cuts and wounds.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3" align="left" valign="top">27<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="3" align="left" valign="top"><italic>Azadirachta indica</italic> A. Juss. MPCW-UODA 3073/2013<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="3" align="left" valign="top">Meliaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="3" align="left" valign="top">Neem (Nim tree)<hr></hr></td><td rowspan="3" align="left" valign="top">Leaf, bark<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Itches, ringworm. Leaves of <italic>Azadirachta indica</italic> are boiled in water and then made into a paste with rhizomes of <italic>Curcuma longa</italic>. The paste is applied to affected areas of skin after taking a bath.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">Helminthiasis. Powdered bark is taken orally with table salt.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">Chicken pox. Paste of leaves of <italic>Azadirachta indica</italic> and rhizomes of <italic>Curcuma longa</italic> are applied to pustules.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">28<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Ficus hispida</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3074/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Moraceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Shada dumur (Hairy fig)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fruit<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Diabetes. Dried and powdered fruits are eaten regularly.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">29<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Moringa oleifera</italic> Lam. MPCW-UODA 3075/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Moringaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Sajna (Horseradish tree)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf, stem<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Jaundice. Juice obtained from crushed leaves and stems is taken orally.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">30<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Psidium guajava</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3077/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Myrtaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Peyara (Guava)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf bud, fruit<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tooth infections, loss of appetite. Leaf buds are boiled in water followed by gargling with the water for tooth infections. Fruits are chewed and eaten to stimulate appetite.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">31<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Plumbago indica</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3079/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Plumbaginaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Agun pata (Scarlet leadwort)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Pain. Leaves are fried in any oil and ghee (clarified butter) and massaged on the painful areas.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">32<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Persicaria glabra</italic> (Willd.) M. Gómez MPCW-UODA 3080/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Polygonaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Kathali kot (Denseflower knotweed)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf sap<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Conjunctivitis. Leaf sap is applied to eyes.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">33<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Eichhornia crassipes</italic> (Mart.) Solms MPCW-UODA 3084/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Pontederiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Pana kochuri (Common water hyacinth)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Root<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Feeling of hotness in head. Roots are soaked in water and kept on top of head.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">34<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Paederia foetida</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3085/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Rubiaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Padri gota (Skunk vine)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Diarrhea. Leaves are boiled in water followed by drinking the water.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">35<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Aegle marmelos</italic> (L.) Corr. MPCW-UODA 3086/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Rutaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bael (Bengal quince)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Stomach disorders, watery stool, loss of appetite. Young leaves are chewed followed by drinking water for stomach disorders. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is orally taken for watery stool. Leaves are chewed to increase appetite.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">36<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Santalum album</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3087/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Santalaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Shada chandan (East Indian sandalwood)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Wood<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">See <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic>.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">37<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Scoparia dulcis</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3088/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Scrophulariaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Boner dhonia (Goatweed)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Whole plant<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">The Deb barma clan prepares a wine from fermenting the whole plant and drinks it.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">38<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Smilax macrophylla</italic> Roxb. MPCW-UODA 3089/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Smilacaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Kumira lota<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Stem<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Weakness, tremor in hands or legs. Crushed stems are mixed with water. The water is taken orally in the form of a sherbet.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">39<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Physalis micrantha</italic> Link MPCW-UODA 3092/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Solanaceae (Annual)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bon morich, Pagla pata (Cape gooseberry)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Infections between the fingers of legs from working long hours in water. Crushed leaves are applied to infections.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">40<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Pouzolzia zeylanica</italic> (L.) Benn. MPCW-UODA 3096/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Urticaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Lajon turi (Graceful pouzolzs bush)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Skin infections, skin disorders. Crushed leaves are applied as poultice on the affected areas of skin.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">41<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Clerodendrum viscosum</italic> Vent. MPCW-UODA 3097/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Verbenaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bhatir pata, Vite gach (Hill glory bower)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Jaundice, helminthiasis. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is taken orally.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">42<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Lantana camara</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3099/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Verbenaceae (Perennial)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Motmoti (Spanish flag)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Leaf<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Flatulence. Juice obtained from crushed leaves is taken orally.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">43<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Alpinia nigra</italic> (Gaertn.) Burtt. MPCW-UODA 3102/2013<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Zingiberaceae (Annual)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tara (Galingale)<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Stem<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Being possessed by ‘genies’ or ‘ghosts’. Stem is tied with a thread around the waist and worn in that position till the patient is ‘cured’.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left">44</td><td align="left"><italic>Curcuma longa</italic> L. MPCW-UODA 3105/2013</td><td align="left">Zingiberaceae (Perennial)</td><td align="left">Holud (Turmeric)</td><td align="left">Rhizome</td><td align="left">See <italic>Azadirachta indica</italic>.</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec><sec><title>Preferred mode of treatment by Deb barma clan households</title><p>Interview with all Heads of households and the adult persons of both sexes of the Deb barma clan suggested that in recent years, the clan is moving away from their traditional medicine towards treatment with allopathic medicine. In terms of household, 35% of households reported using only their traditional medicine and visiting their traditional medicinal healer, 20% reported visiting only allopathic doctors, 40% reported visiting both their traditional healer as well as the allopathic doctor, and 5% reported a combination of allopathic and homeopathic treatment. In terms of actual percent of persons using the various systems of medicine, 44.4% of the total clan population visited only their own clan healer, 14.8% visited only the allopathic doctor, 37.8% visited both their traditional clan healer as well as the allopathic doctor, and 3% of the total clan population received both allopathic and homeopathic treatments. The results are shown in Table <xref ref-type="table" rid="T2">2</xref>. On further inquiries, the persons who visited the allopathic doctor only, mentioned that they have lost faith in their traditional healing methods, because allopathic treatment gave them quicker recoveries. People who visited both their clan healer as well as allopathic doctor mentioned that they visit their clan healer for simple diseases but go to allopathic doctor for treatment of life-threatening diseases. Sometimes, they visit their clan healer first, and if his treatment fails, they go to the allopathic doctor for treatment. People who visited both allopathic and homeopathic practitioners constituted a minority of the clan population. They visited the homeopathic physician for common diseases and also because homeopathic treatment was cheaper, and the allopathic physician for life-threatening diseases. When asked as to which diseases they thought to be common, it was the view point of most clan members that coughs and cold, or fever that goes away within a few days, or gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence were common diseases; most other diseases were regarded as complicated and which could become life-threatening. However, paranormal diseases like being possessed by ‘genies’ or ‘ghosts’ were always treated by their traditional healer. They also further mentioned that obtaining treatment from an allopathic doctor was a relatively new occurrence for them, and it happened only after a NGO operating in the area brought in the services of an allopathic doctor and advised the clan people to visit the doctor instead of their traditional healer.</p><table-wrap position="float" id="T2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Preferred mode of treatment by Deb barma clan households</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups" border="1"><colgroup><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col></colgroup><thead valign="top"><tr><th rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><bold>Household Number</bold></th><th rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><bold>Total family member(s)</bold></th><th colspan="3" align="left" valign="bottom"><bold>Preferred mode of treatment</bold><hr></hr></th><th rowspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><bold>Comments on preferred mode of treatment</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><bold>Traditional (Tribal healer)</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Allopathic</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Homeopathy</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">1<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">12<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tribal healer under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">2<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">6<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers allopathic over tribal healer.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">3<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">5<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers allopathic for common diseases, tribal healer for paranormal diseases.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">4<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">5<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers allopathic for common diseases, tribal healer for paranormal diseases.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">5<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">7<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Allopathic under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">6<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">10<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tribal healer under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">7<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">7<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers tribal healer for common diseases, allopathic for severe conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">8<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">8<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers tribal healer first, if treatment fails then goes for allopathic treatment.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">9<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">12<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tribal healer under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">10<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">5<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Allopathic under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">11<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">8<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tribal healer under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">12<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">4<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers allopathic for life-threatening diseases, homeopathy for common diseases.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">13<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">7<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tribal healer under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">14<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">6<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers tribal healer for common diseases, allopathic for life-threatening diseases.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">15<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">4<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Allopathic under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">16<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">8<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Prefers tribal healer first, allopathic only if tribal healer fails.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">17<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">4<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Allopathic under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">18<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">10<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tribal healer under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom">19<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">1<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">+<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">-<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tribal healer under all conditions.<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left">20</td><td align="left">6</td><td align="left">+</td><td align="left">+</td><td align="left">-</td><td align="left">Prefers tribal healer for common diseases, allopathic for life-threatening diseases.</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></sec></sec><sec sec-type="discussion"><title>Discussion</title><p>A number of the plants used by the Deb barma healer have been scientifically studied, or their use in traditional medicinal systems, particularly Ayurveda, has been described. Ayurveda is possibly the most ancient form of highly organized traditional medicinal system in the Indian sub-continent and dates back to almost 5,000 years ago. It is very much possible that since the Tripura tribe possibly came to India at least 2,000 years ago, there have been mutual interactions between the Ayurvedic medicinal system and the tribal medicines of the Tripura tribe including the Deb barma clan.</p><sec><title>Plants used in malaria</title><p>The Deb barma tribal healer used the plant, <italic>Andrographis paniculata</italic>, for treatment of malaria, a disease characterized by high fever. The plant is known in Ayurveda as ‘Kaalmegha’ and is used as a febrifuge, i.e. a medication that reduces fever [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>]. Notably, in scientific studies, extract of this plant has been shown to possess anti-malarial activity through growth inhibition of <italic>Plasmodium falciparum</italic>, the parasite causing malaria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>]. However, the other plant used by the healer, <italic>Justicia gendarussa</italic>, to treat malaria, does not have any scientifically reported anti-malarial activity, and so is a promising plant for anti-malarial studies. On the other hand, <italic>Justicia gendarussa</italic> is known in Ayurveda as ‘Krishna Vaasaa’ and is used in the Ayurvedic formulary as a febrifuge.</p></sec><sec><title>Plants used in skin diseases, tuberculosis and helminthiasis</title><p><italic>Justicia adhatoda</italic> was used by the healer to treat skin infections and tuberculosis. Ethnomedicinal uses of the plant for treatment of tuberculosis have been reported from India [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>]; in Ayurveda, the plant is known as ‘Vaasaka’ and is used as expectorant, and for bronchial and pulmonary afflictions, which would include tuberculosis [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>]. Leaves of <italic>Azadirachta indica</italic> were used by the healer to treat ringworm infections, while bark was used to treat helmintic infections. In Ayurveda, the tree is known as ‘Nimba’, and the leaves and bark are considered anthelmintic and useful for treating skin infections. Feeding leaves, seeds or bark to small ruminants has also been shown to get rid of helminths from the ruminants [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>]. Extract of leaves of the plant has also been reported to be effective against ringworm infections [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>]. <italic>Senna alata</italic> leaves were used by the healer to treat eczema. In Ayurveda, the plant is known as ‘Dadrughna’ and is used to treat eczema [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>]. Eczema is a disorder of the skin, and management of superficial skin infections with the use of soap containing <italic>Senna alata</italic> leaves have been reported [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>].</p></sec><sec><title>Plants used in pain or some diseases causing pain</title><p><italic>Crinum latifolium</italic> was used by the healer to treat chest pain. Many <italic>Crinum</italic> species are in use worldwide in traditional medicinal systems for their analgesic properties [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>]. <italic>Colocasia esculenta</italic>, used by the healer to treat rheumatic pain is known in Ayurveda as ‘Pindaaluka’ and is used in Ayurveda and other traditional medicinal systems of India for treatment of arthritis [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>]. <italic>Psidium guajava</italic> leaf, used by the healer for treatment of tooth infections, has been shown to have beneficial effects on tooth ache [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>], which usually accompanies tooth infections. The analgesic activity of <italic>Plumbago indica</italic> has also been reported [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>], a plant used by the healer for treatment of pain. That the Deb barma healer possessed a good knowledge of the medicinal properties of plants is also evidenced by his use, respectively, of <italic>Jatropha curcas</italic> leaves and <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> fruits for treatment of tooth ache and headache. Scientific studies have shown that the leaf extract of <italic>Jatropha curcas</italic> possess analgesic property [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>]. Analgesic and anti-pyretic activity has also been reported for <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> fruits [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>].</p></sec><sec><title>Plants used in gastrointestinal disorders</title><p><italic>Centella asiatica</italic> was used by the healer to treat stomach disorders; the plant is also used in Ayurveda for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, where the plant is known as ‘Manduukaparni’. The tribals of Meghalaya State in northeast India use the whole plant for treatment of diarrhea [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>]. The Deb barma healer used the plant, <italic>Ageratum conyzoides</italic>, for treatment of stomach disorders. Use of this plant in traditional medicine for treatment of diarrhea has been reported from Nigeria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>].</p><p>Fruits of <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> were used by the healer to increase appetite. In Ayurveda, the plant is known as ‘Aaamalaki’, and the fruits have multiple uses including that of being carminative, anti-diarrheal and as a gastrointestinal tonic [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>]. The fruits of <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> were used along with fruits of <italic>Terminalia chebula</italic> and <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> by the healer to increase appetite. <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> is known in Ayurveda as ‘Bibhitaka’ and its fruits are used for treatment of dyspepsia. <italic>Terminalia chebula</italic> is also considered an Ayurvedic plant (known in Ayurveda as ‘Haritaki’) and its fruits are used for treatment of flatulence and digestive disorders.</p><p>The stems of <italic>Phyllanthus reticulatus</italic> were used by the healer for treatment of diarrhea in children. In Ayurveda, the plant is known as ‘Kaamboji’, and the leaves are considered anti-diarrheal. Leaves of the plant (and possibly stems) are reported to contain lupeol [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>]; the anti-diarrheal property of lupeol has been reported [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>]. Thus the anti-diarrheal use of this plant by the Deb barma healer is in common with other traditional medicinal (Ayurveda) uses of the plant as well as scientifically validated.</p><p><italic>Aegle marmelos</italic>, used by the healer for treating stomach disorders, is known in Ayurveda as ‘Bilva”, and considered a very specific plant for treatment of stomach complaints. <italic>Paederia foetida</italic>, also used by the healer for treatment of diarrhea, is known in Ayurveda as ‘Talanili’, and is considered an anti-diarrheal plant in this traditional medicinal system [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>]. Leaves of <italic>Lantana camara</italic>, used by the healer to treat flatulence, are used by the Malayali tribals of Chitteri Hills in India to improve digestion in children [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>]. It may be noted that flatulence can be caused because of indigestion.</p></sec><sec><title>Plants used in coughs</title><p>Fruits of <italic>Garcinia cowa</italic> have been reported to be used in traditional medicines of Thailand for treatment of coughs [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>], which use was similar to the use by the Deb barma healer. The flowers of <italic>Leucas aspera</italic> were used by the healer for treatment of coughs in infants. In Ayurveda, the plant is known as ‘Dronpushpi’, and the flowers are used to treat coughs and colds in children. The leaves of <italic>Ocimum gratissimum</italic> were used by the healer to treat rheumatic pain as well as coughs and mucus. Ayurvedic texts describe the plant as ‘Vriddha Tulasi’ and its uses for neurological and rheumatic afflictions [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>]; scientific studies have validated the use of leaves of the plant for treatment of pain [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>]; in homeopathy, the leaves are used to treat coughs.</p></sec><sec><title>Plants used in diabetes and cardiovascular disorders</title><p>Bark of <italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic> was used by the healer to treat chest pain due to heart disorders; the aqueous extract of the bark has been shown to exert a cardiotonic effect on adult ventricular myocytes [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>]. The therapeutic potential of bark of this plant in cardiovascular disorders has been reviewed [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>]. It has further been shown that administration of bark extract of the plant improved myocardial function in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>]; it is to be noted that diabetes can cause cardiovascular complications following onset of this disease. The plant is known in Ayurveda as ‘Arjuna’ and is used in Ayurvedic medicines as a cardioprotective and cardiotonic in angina and poor coronary circulation.</p><p>Leaves of <italic>Lawsonia inermis</italic> were used by the healer to treat diabetes; hypoglycemic activity of leaf extract has been reported in alloxan-induced diabetic mice [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>]. The use of another plant by the Deb barma healer has been scientifically validated. Fruits of <italic>Ficus hispida</italic> were used by the healer to treat diabetes; bark extract of the plant has been shown to demonstrate hypoglycemic activity in normal and diabetic albino rats [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>].</p></sec><sec><title>Plants used in jaundice and other ailments</title><p>Leaves of <italic>Moringa oleifera</italic>, used by the healer to treat jaundice, have been shown to have hepatoprotective effect [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>]. The hepatoprotective property of <italic>Clerodendrum viscosum</italic> has been shown [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>], a plant used by the healer for treatment of jaundice. The leaves of <italic>Melastoma malabathricum</italic> were used by the healer to stop bleeding from external cuts and wounds; in some parts of India, the bark is also used for the same purpose [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>].</p></sec><sec><title>Comparative analysis of Deb barma tribal use of medicinal plants with other reported tribal uses in Bangladesh</title><p>We have previously conducted ethnomedicinal surveys of the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>], who inhabits the southeastern portion of Bangladesh, as well as Tripura tribal communities residing in other parts of the country. The present survey was conducted on the Deb barma clan of the same tribe, who inhabits the northeastern part of Bangladesh. It is of interest that the medicinal plants used by the two clan healers (Harbang and Deb barma), with the exception of a few plants, were totally different. Even when the plants used were the same, the ailments treated were different. For instance, <italic>Justicia adhatoda</italic> was used by the Deb barma healer to treat skin infections and tuberculosis, but used by the Harbang clan healer to treat coughs and asthma. <italic>Ageratum conyzoides</italic> was used by the Deb barma healer to treat stomach disorders, but used by the Harbang healer to treat asthma. However, <italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic> was used by both clan healers for treatment of heart disorders. It is possible that the two clans being separated into two regions used different medicinal plants more available in their vicinity for treatment. It is also possible that the choice of Deb barma medicinal plants were influenced by interactions with Ayurvedic practitioners, while the Harbang clan selection of medicinal plants reflects choices of a more indigenous nature, i.e. influenced by experiences of their own tribal healer. More studies need to be conducted in this regard on possible interactions of Ayurveda with medicines of various Tripura tribal clans.</p><p>Our previous studies on various tribes point to both similarities and differences between medicinal uses of plants between the Deb barma clan and other tribes, with differences being more than similarities. For instance, the Santal tribe of Rangpur district, Bangladesh use whole plants of <italic>Colocasia esculenta</italic> for treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, piles, and wounds [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; the Deb barma healer used tubers of the plant for treatment of rheumatic pain. The Hodi tribe uses the same plant for treatment of prolapse of uterus [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]. The plant is used for treatment of stomach pain and hiccup by the Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; and for treatment of diabetes by the Teli clan of the Telegu tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>]. <italic>Ageratum conyzoides</italic> was used by the Santal healer for treatment of impotency [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>], but by the Deb barma healer against stomach disorders. The plant was used as an insect repellent and for treatment of wounds and itches by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; and for treatment of bleeding, acidity, stomach pain by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]. The plant was also used for treatment of bleeding from cuts and wounds by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; and for treatment of severe headache by the Sigibe clan of the Khumi tribe residing in Thanchi sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>]. Thus, in this case, the Deb barma use was the same as the Marma tribal use in the sense that both tribes used the plant for stomach disorders but differed from the rest of the tribes surveyed.</p><p>The Santal healer used <italic>Moringa oleifera</italic> against constipation, epilepsy, skin eruptions, leucoderma, and as an astringent [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>], while the Deb barma healer used the plant against jaundice. The Pahan tribe uses the plant against rheumatism, chicken pox, and as snake repellent [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]. The Sardar community used seeds and fruits of <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> against osteoporosis, diabetes, hysteria, cardiovascular disorders, and low density of semen and kidney problems [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>], but the Deb barma healer used fruits of the plant to improve appetite. However, the fruits are used also to treat long-term fever, loss of appetite and as a sexual stimulant by the healers of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]. In this case, regarding treatment of loss of appetite (or to improve appetite), the Tripura tribal use of fruits of <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> was the same between the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe (residing in Moulvibazar district in the northeast part of Bangladesh) and the Tripura tribal community residing in Chittagong Hill tracts (in the southeast part of Bangladesh). Notably, the plant and especially the fruits are also used as aphrodisiac, energizer, and for treatment of fever, and body ache by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; treatment of urinary tract infection, hysteria by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>] (differences in the plant use by this Tripura community with the other Tripura clans and communities to be noted); treatment of anemia by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; treatment of coughs by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; and treatment of coughs and diarrhea by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>].</p><p>The Rai tribe uses <italic>Paederia foetida</italic> against insanity and mental disorders [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>], but the Deb barma healer used the plant against diarrhea. The plant is used for treatment of rheumatic pain, burning sensations during urination by the healers (tribal medicinal practitioners or TMPs) of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>], and for treatment of toothache by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]. Taken together, the findings indicate that although certain therapeutic uses of the same plant may be similar, a higher degree of differences exist between medicinal uses of the same plant and its various parts between the various tribes of Bangladesh, which underscores the necessity of documenting medicinal practices of as many tribes as possible to get a comprehensive picture of the manifold uses of any given plant species.</p></sec><sec><title>Review of ethnomedicinal uses of Deb barma plants with other reported folk medicinal uses in Bangladesh</title><p>A review of the various reported ethnomedicinal uses in Bangladesh of the plants of the Deb barma healer is shown in Table <xref ref-type="table" rid="T3">3</xref>. The Bangladeshi traditional medicine has been described as a “unique conglomerate of different ethnomedicinal influences” [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]. Besides the more widely known Ayurveda and Unani systems of medicine with their established colleges and pharmacopoeias, folk and tribal medicinal systems, respectively, play an important role in providing health care services to the mainstream particularly rural Bengali-speaking population and the tribal people. To some extent, some of our surveys [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>] as well as Table <xref ref-type="table" rid="T3">3</xref> indicate that these medicinal systems influence each other (more so with Ayurvedic medicine influencing folk and tribal medicines as well as quite possibly the other way round). Folk and tribal medicinal practitioners have several things in common; primarily they rely on simple formulations of medicinal plants for treatment with occasional uses of animal parts, incantations and amulets. Also the medicinal formulations are to a great extent highly individualistic in the sense that formulations can vary greatly from practitioner to practitioner, even though the practitioners may be practicing in the same village or adjoining villages [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]. This can be also seen in Table <xref ref-type="table" rid="T3">3</xref>, where healers from various areas of Bangladesh can be seen to use the listed plants in a highly diversified manner.</p><table-wrap position="float" id="T3"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Other reported ethnomedicinal uses in Bangladesh of medicinal plants of the Deb barma healer</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups" border="1"><colgroup><col align="left"></col><col align="left"></col></colgroup><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left"><bold>Plant name</bold></th><th align="left"><bold>Reported ethnomedicinal uses in Bangladesh</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Andrographis paniculata</italic> Nees<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Lung infections, liver disorders by the Teli tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]; helminthiasis, fever by the Kole tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]; fever and malarial fever by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; fever, headache, vertigo by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; intestinal worms, low sperm count, jaundice, skin disorders, liver dysfunction by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; liver diseases by FMPs of Feni district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; stomach and heart disorders by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; indigestion by FMPs of Rampal in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>]; anorexia by FMPs of Rampal in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>]; diabetes in Dhaka [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]; liver diseases, helminthiasis by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; emetic, helminthiasis, sexual disorders by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; helminthiasis, dysentery, rectal diseases, coughs, cold, fever, mucus by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; fever by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; fever, intestinal and hepatic disorders by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; liver disorders, helminthiasis, acidity by FMPs of Vitbilia village of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>]; fever, intestinal and hepatic disorders by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; edema, blood purifier, to strengthen stomach and liver functions, helminthiasis, debility, loss of appetite, fever, skin infections by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; diabetes, leucorrhea by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; helminthiasis in children by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; headache by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; fever by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; fever, constipation by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; stomach disorders, to improve digestion, bloating with burning sensations in the chest, by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; stomach and heart disorders by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; diabetes by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Nobogram village in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>]; fever, intestinal worm, spleenomegally by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; common cold, uncomplicated sinusitis, pharyngotonsillitis, lower urinary tract infections, acute diarrhea by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; cold, coughs, fever by the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>]; fever arising suddenly during the night, skin infections, toothache by the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Justicia adhatoda</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Coughs, fever by the Teli tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]; coughs, mucus, asthma by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; coughs by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; pain, cold, coughs, asthma, wounds by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; tuberculosis by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; coughs, pneumonia, asthma by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; respiratory problems by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; asthma by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Kannapara and Mondumala villages of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>]; helminthiasis, diarrhea, constipation by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; coughs, asthma, bleeding hemorrhoids by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; helminthiasis, coughs, sedative, sprain by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; coughs by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; coughs, body ache by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; mucus by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district of Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>]; rabies, pneumonia, jaundice by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; antidote to poisoning, bronchitis, malaria, skin eruptions, astringent, cold in cattle by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; fever, cold, coughs by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; coughs, asthma, menstrual problems, jaundice, hepatitis by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; asthma by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; coughs, asthma by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; leucorrhea, chronic respiratory disorders, coughs by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; coughs by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>] and by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; all types of pain, fever by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; whooping cough by FMPs of Vitbilia village of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>]; severe fever with mucus by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; chronic asthma, leprosy by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; tuberculosis by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; coughs, biliary problems, frequent thirsts, fever, vomiting tendency, diabetes, leprosy, tuberculosis by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; upper respiratory infections, chest pain with coughs, bronchitis, long-term fever with abnormally high body temperatures by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; coughs, blood coming ou with coughs, fever, mucus, asthma, all sorts of pain including pain and swelling due to injury, bronchitis, respiratory difficulties by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; tuberculosis, blood purifier, spleen disorders, burning sensations during urination, antidote to poisoning, coughs, whooping coughs, mucus, asthma, fever, jaundice, vomiting or vomiting tendency, gonorrhea, leprosy, to regularize menstruation, stoppage of urination by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; whooping cough by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; frequent fever by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; coughs, whooping cough, fever, pneumonia by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; chronic cough, asthma by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; asthma, jaundice by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; cold, fever, jaundice by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; cold, fever, jaundice by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; respiratory difficulties, asthma by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; coughs, mucus by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; coughs by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; malaria, coughs, cold by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; coughs by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; coughs, chest pain, pneumonia by the Hajong community of Baromari village in Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref>]; cold, coughs by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; coughs by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; skin infections, skin diseases by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; coughs by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; flatulency, low sperm count, astringent, biliary problems, diarrhea, dysentery, tuberculosis, coughs, fever, eczema, leprosy, asthma by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; coughs, tuberculosis by the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>]; coughs, mucus, fever, tuberculosis by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>]; coughs, mucus by the Teli clan of the Telegu tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>]; chest pain, coughs, cold, asthma by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Justicia gendarussa</italic> Burm. f.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Infertility with seizures by the Hodi tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]; insect bite, nocturnal emissions by the Khasia tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>]; fever, coughs, mucus, asthma, whitish discharge in urine of men or women by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; wounds by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; eczema, dysentery, jaundice, rheumatism, animal or bird bites by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; bone fracture and fracture-associated pain by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; bone fracture, rheumatic pain by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; back pain by FMPs of a group of Christians residing in Mirzapore village of Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref>]; appetizer, helminthiasis by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; jaundice by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; debility by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; cuts and wounds, substitute for anti-tetanus injection by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; rheumatic pain by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; flatulence in cattle by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; wasting away of body by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; paralysis by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; bleeding from external cuts and wounds, bleeding through the mouth, excessive or irregular bleeding during menstruation by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; snake bite by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; rheumatic pain by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; rheumatic pain by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; coughs and mucus in children by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; paralysis by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; throat pain due to cold and coughs by the Sigibe clan of the Khumi tribe residing in Thanchi sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>]; liver disorder, astringent by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; fever, cold, ear lobe infection by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; helmintic infections in children by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; to bring out poison by the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Aerva sanguinolenta</italic> (L.) Blume<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bleeding from cuts and wounds by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; rheumatism, leucorrhea by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; tonic, sedative, dermatitis by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; bleeding from cuts and wounds by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; blood in urine by the ojhas (tribal medicinal practitioners) of the Santal tribe of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref>]; bone fracture, abortifacient by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; body pain by FMPs of Vitbilia village of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>]; malnutrition in newly delivered mother by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; snake bite, stomach disorder by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; bleeding from cuts and wounds by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; insect sting, allergic rash by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; insect or snake bite by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Crinum latifolium</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Indigestion in cattle by the Khasia tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>]; indigestion by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref>]; antidote to poisoning, skin disorder, cattle sedative, conjunctivitis in cattle by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Centella asiatica</italic> (L.) Urb.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Jaundice by the Hodi tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]; helminthiasis, stomach ache by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; dysentery by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; indigestion, stomach infection by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; weakness, skin problems, dysentery, indigestion, cataract, gonorrhea, low semen density, leucorrhea by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; fever, pain by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; dysentery, intestinal pain by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; indigestion, appetite stimulant by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; dysentery, stomach ache, to increase memory by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; body ache, dysentery by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; gastric or liver troubles by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; diarrhea, gastric problems by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district of Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>]; gastric disorder, stomach pain, diarrhea, blood dysentery, fever, coughs by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; bone fracture by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; sexual diseases, uncontrolled urination by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; cold, rabies, gastric ulcer, dysentery, intestinal disorders by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; dysentery, cataract, stomach problems by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; cataract in goats, to keep head cool, diabetes, swelling in eyes, conjunctivitis in humans by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; hair loss, dysentery, gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; blood purifier, fever, diabetes by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; ulcer by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; anemia, vomiting, stomach pain by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; cold, dysentery, blood purifier by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; fever, pain by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; indigestion, flatulence, helminthiasis, diarrhea by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; blood dysentery by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; stomach pain by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; cold, rabies, gastric problems, ulcer, dysentery by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; diarrhea, dysentery by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; flatulence, indigestion, hair loss by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; anemia by TMPs of a Mro tribal community residing at Gazalia Union of Bandarbans district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>]; jaundice, dysentery by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; stomach pain by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; to increase memory by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; stomach pain in children, dysentery by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; pain, dysentery, diarrhea, flatulence, tuberculosis by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; fever, pyorrhea, impotency, gastritis, jaundice by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; stomach pain, dysentery by the Tudu sub-clan of the Santal tribe in Joypurhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref>]; gastrointestinal disorders, to increase memory by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>]; diarrhea, dysentery by the Teli clan of the Telegu tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>]; syphilis, ulcer by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Alstonia scholaris</italic> (L.) R. Br.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Abscess, swelling of gums, asthma by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; leucorrhea by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; cancer sand tumors by FMPs of Rampal in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>]; kidney and hepatic problems in humans, restlessness in cattle by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; nerve stimulant by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; cold sores (caused by herpes), fever, diabetes by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; gastric problems by FMPs of a group of Christians residing in Mirzapore village of Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref>]; puerperal fever, pain, jaundice by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; debility by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref>]; syphilis, skin diseases, leprosy by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; rheumatic pain, fever, dysentery by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; infections accompanied by swellings on human face, ulcer by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; allergy by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; continuous fever, malaria by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; to increase libido by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; kala azar by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; fever, pimples, coughs, anti-bilious by by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; kidney and hepatic problems in humans, restlessness in cows by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; malaria by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; mouth ulcer by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; galactagogue by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; aphrodisiac, antidote to poisoning, inflammation, fever by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; lip blister by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; acne, coughs, flatulence, blood disorder, asthma, abdominal tumor, chronic enlargement of spleen, helminthiasis by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; jaundice by the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>]; skin infections by the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>]; skin infections, dysentery, diarrhea, fever by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Colocasia esculenta</italic> (L.) Schott.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Hemorrhoids, diarrhea, dysentery, wound by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; prolapse of uterus by the Hodi tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]; cuts and wounds by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; severe jaundice, digestive aid, constipation by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; colic, indigestion by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; anti-hemorrhagic, blood purifier, to strengthen bones by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district of Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>]; astringent, carminative, scar, tumor, infertility by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; allergic disorders by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; astringent, bloating, dermatitis, tiger bite, helminthiasis, emetic by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>]; rheumatic pain, paralysis by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; stomach pain, hiccup by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; diabetes by the Teli clan of the Telegu tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Borassus flabellifer</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Jaundice by the Sardar community [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>]; ear ache by the Kole tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]; pain during menstruation by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; debility, insomnia by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; cancer, edema, epilepsy, boils by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; low sperm count by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; edema, inflammation by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; wasting away of body by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; urinary problems arising from diabetes or endocrinological disorders by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; having difficulties in urinating, excessive bleeding following abortion by TMPs of a Mro tribal community residing at Gazalia Union of Bandarbans district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>]; sexual weakness by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Asparagus racemosus</italic> Willd.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Physical weakness by the Kole tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]; bacterial or fungal infections, edema, tonic, bloating, hypertension, galactagogue, malnutrition in children, memory and strength enhancer, nerve weakness by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; snake bite, wounds by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; filariasis, sexual dysfunction in men, night blindness by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Kannapara and Mondumala villages of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>]; diabetes, tuberculosis by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; sexual disorders, anti-hemorrhagic, sore throat, night blindness, blood dysentery by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; stone dislodged in penis, diabetes by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; tuberculosis by the ojhas (tribal medicinal practitioners) of the Santal tribe of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref>]; burning sensations during urination, bloating by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; diabetes, heart diseases by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; debility, to keep body healthy by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; physical weakness in males by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; constipation, impotency in men by FMPs of Vitbilia village of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>]; to increase libido by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; hypertension, galactagogue by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; asthma (during winter), bitter taste in mouth, nutritive, to increase intelligence, to maintain good eyes, to increase sperm, to increase strength, galactagogue, diarrhea by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; physical weakness by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; mental, physical, nerve and sexual weakness, galactagogue, strengthen teeth, gonorrhea by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; burning sensations in stomach, burning sensations in soles of feet, stomach pain, hot feeling in body, insomnia by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; leucorrhea by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; leucorrhea, syphilis, gonorrhea by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; decreased sperm count, passing of semen with urine by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; debility (in case of males) by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; ‘meho’ (endocrinological disorders) by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; diabetes, debility by the Mandai tribe of Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref>]; asthma, leucorrhea by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; asthma, coughs, cold by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; vaginitis by the Chakma tribe of Hill Tracts districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>]; labor problem, leucorrhea by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; weakness, diabetes, urinary problems by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; swelling or enlargement of testicles by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; asthma during winter, bitter taste in mouth, nutritive, to increase intelligence, to maintain good eyes, to increase strength, to increase sperm, galactagogue, diarrhea, hyperacidity by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; snake bite by the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Ageratum conyzoides</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Astringent, impotency, insect repellent by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; asthma by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; diarrhea, dysentery, boils, skin diseases, joint pain by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; to expedite delivery in cows by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; insect repellent, wounds, itches by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; bleeding, acidity, stomach pain by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; insecticidal, coughs, fever, inflammation, spermatorrhea by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; to expedite delivery in cows by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; cuta and wounds, acne, skin diseases, fever by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; bleeding from cuts and wounds by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; severe headache by the Sigibe clan of the Khumi tribe residing in Thanchi sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>]; aphrodisiac by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; coughs in infants by healers among tea garden workers in Sreemangal [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Garcinia cowa</italic> Roxb.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Dried, powdered fruit used in headache and dysentery [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic> (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Depression on both sides of the head and chest with appearance of yellowish color in palm of hand and eyes by the Hodi tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]; osteoporosis by the Sardar community [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>]; heart disorders by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; cardiovascular disorders, whitish discharge during urination, burning sensations during urination, puerperal fever by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; low sperm count, diabetes, heart diseases by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; stomach and heart disorders, premature graying of hair by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; diabetes in Dhaka [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]; heart disease, diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; cardiovascular disorders, appetite stimulant by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; hypertension, anemia, leprosy by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; cardiovascular diseases, cholera, bleeding hemorrhoids, blood dysentery by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; leucorrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, infertility, weakness by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; sex stimulant, heart disease by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; pain in bones by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; heart disorders, hepatic disorders, jaundice, maintenance of normal blood pressure by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; erectile dysfunction by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; cardiovascular disorders, blood purification by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; heart disorders, indigestion by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; to increase sexual power, coughs, asthma, heart disorders, dysentery by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; low sperm count, dysentery by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; heart diseases by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; abnormal rhythms of heart by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; abnormal heart beat by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; heart disorders, debility by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; respiratory problems, coughs, fever, debility, hypotension by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; heart disease, bone fracture by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; heart diseases, gynecological disorders, nerve stimulant, leprosy, gonorrhea by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>]; loss of sexual desire, heart disorders, constipation, infections from cuts and wounds, blood purifier, obesity, diabetes, coughs, acne by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; paralysis by FMPs of four adjoining villages in Narail and Jessore districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref>]; heart disorders, chronic dysentery by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; cardiovascular disorders by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; cardiovascular disorders by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; stomach disorders, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; decrease in libido by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; syphilis, gonorrhea, dysentery by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; weakness of heart, joint pain by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; low sperm count, dysentery, heart disease by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; heart disease, pain in heart, blood coming from mouth by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; spermatorrhea by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; heart disorders, liver problem, hepatitis, kidney problem, passing of semen with urine by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; stomach and heart disorders, graying of hair by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; snake bite by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; knee and waist pain by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Nobogram village in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>]; scabies, itching by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; cardiovascular disorders by the Hajong community of Baromari village in Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref>]; scabies, itching by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; dysentery, flatulency by the Murmu tribal community of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref>]; heart disorders by the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>]; heart disorders, low semen density, coughs, blood purifier, leucorrhea by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>]; blister by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic> (Gaertn.) Roxb.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, low density of semen, kidney problems, hysteria, osteoporosis by the Sardar community [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>]; coughs, mucus, asthma by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; fever with shivering by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; tonic, diarrhea, dysentery, coughs, breathing problems, hair tonic, joint pain by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; constipation by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; diabetes in Dhaka [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]; coughs, to increase strength, appetite stimulant, to increase eye sight by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; constipation, sexual diseases by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; stimulant, impotency by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; waist pain by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; erectile dysfunction by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; long-term fever, loss of appetite, sexual stimulant by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; asthma, to maintain heart, lungs and liver in good condition by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; to increase libido, acidity by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; to keep healthy by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; gonorrhea by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; to cure any disease by FMPs of Vitbilia village of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>]; blood purifier, appetite stimulant by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; helminthiasis, loss of hair by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; astringent, coughs, biliary disorders, to maintain good eyes and hair, helminthiasis, breaking down of voice, thirst, vomiting tendency, rheumatism by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; jaundice, to ensure proper bowel movement, any type of gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; chronic dysentery, hemorrhoids, to blacken hair and strengthen hair roots, to increase sperm, conjunctivitis, emetic, fever due to biliary trouble, headache, diarrhea by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; fever by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; syphilis, gonorrhea by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; dysentery, cholera, gastric problems by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; coughs, indigestion by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; abscess, burning sensations on skin, hemorrhoids by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; coughs, spleen disorders, gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; gastric problem by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; constipation by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; aphrodisiac, energizer, fever, body ache by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; urinary tract infection, hysteria by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; anemia by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; coughs by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; coughs, diarrhea by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; blood purifier by healers among tea garden workers in Sreemangal [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>]; breathing problem by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Terminalia chebula</italic> Retz.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Cardiovascular disorders, hysteria, osteoporosis by the Sardar community [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>]; diabetes by the Marakh sect of the Garo tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>]; fever with shivering by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; stomachic by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; diabetes in Dhaka [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]; digestive, quenching thirst, blood dysentery, bloating, constipation by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; asthma, heart disorders, eye disorders, night blindness, itches by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; constipation, nausea by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; infections, indigestion by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; purgative, cough relief by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; waist pain by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; erectile dysfunction by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; jaundice by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; gastrointestinal disorders, heart disorders, debility, helminthiasis by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; constipation, less urination by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; loss of sensitivity in skin due to allergy or other reasons, chronic mucus, continuous sneezing with runny nose, small pustules on the skin of children by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; to keep healthy by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; gonorrhea by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; blackening of hair, acne, acidity by FMPs of Vitbilia village of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>]; blood purifier, appetite stimulant by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; constipation, vomiting by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; lack of appetite, malaria, hepatitis, sexual disorders, indigestion by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>]; astringent, excessive sexual desire, to increase intelligence, to maintain good eyes, to increase longevity, respiratory problems, coughs, hemorrhoids, leprosy, edema, helminthiasis, breaking down of voice, chronic dysentery, constipation, tumor or swelling, jaundice, loss of appetite, to dissolve stones (like kidney stones) by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; dysentery, blood dysentery, excessive bleeding during menstruation, jaundice, to ensure proper bowel movement, any type of gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; to improve functions of liver, stomach and brain, to increase strength and longevity, sex stimulant, pain, rheumatic pain, acne, skin disorders, constipation, hemorrhoids, vomiting by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; fever by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; syphilis, gonorrhea by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; decreased sperm count, passing of semen with urine by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; fungal infections by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; vomiting tendency, constipation, skin diseases by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; hemorrhoids by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; coughs, spleen disorders, gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; gastric problem by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; aphrodisiac, energizer, fever, body ache by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; urinary tract infection, hysteria by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; anemia by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; coughs by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; coughs by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; hemorrhoids, asthma, coughs, fever by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Sansevieria hyacinthoides</italic> (L.) Druce<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Ear ache by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Jatropha curcas</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Swelling of gums by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; white dysentery (presence of mucus in stools) by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref>]; dysentery, b lood dysentery, tooth problems by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; white dysentery by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; dysentery, chronic dysentery by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; irregular menstruation by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; swelling of gums by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; toothache, snake bite, dysentery by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Nobogram village in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>]; high blood pressure by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; lip blister by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; gout, rheumatism, abdominal pain, respiratory problems, edema, obesity, uterine cyst, gall bladder problems, gastrointestinal tract disorders, premature ejaculation, hemorrhoids, ringworm by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Cardiovascular disorders, hysteria, osteoporosis by the Sardar community [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>]; diabetes by the Marakh sect of the Garo tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>]; sudden unconsciousness by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; cardiovascular disorders by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; premature graying of hair by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; diabetes in Dhaka [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]; to increase taste, jaundice, gastric problems, indigestion by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; appetite stimulant, indigestion by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; to stimulate appetite by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; appetizer, gonorrhea, toothache, itches by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; burning sensations in urinary tract, leucorrhea, hair loss, reduce graying of hair by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; alopecia, appetizer by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; loss of hair, to stop vomiting by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; puerperal fever, pain, waist pain, debility by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; erectile dysfunction by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; fever, skin problems, loss of appetite, poisonous animal or insect bite, diabetes by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; long-term fever, loss of appetite, sexual stimulant by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; mucus, biliary disorders, loss of appetite, hair loss by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref>]; tooth pain by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; to increase appetite, skin diseases, fever, to increase strength, burning sensations during urination, hair loss, graying of hair by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; hair loss by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; to increase libido by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; loss of sensitivity in skin due to allergy or other reasons, chronic mucus, continuous sneezing with runny nose, small pustules on the skin of children by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; to maintain health by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; gonorrhea by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; to stimulate appetite by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; loss of hair, irritation during urination by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; fistula, lack of appetite, hepatitis, diarrhea, dysentery, cold by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>]; biliary problems, diabetes, alleviation of respiratory, stomach and hepatic problems, fatigue, thirst, burning sensations in the b ody especially in palms of hands or soles of feet, vomiting tendency, insanity by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; jaundice, blood purifier, anemia, to ensure proper bowel movement, any type of gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; allergy by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; eye infections by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; syphilis, gonorrhea by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; decreased sperm count, passing of semen with urine by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; alopecia, indigestion by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; hemorrhoids by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; blood purifier, anemia, hair loss, coughs, spleen disorders, gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; anemia by TMPs of a Mro tribal community residing at Gazalia Union of Bandarbans district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>]; stomach troubles, gastric problem by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; graying of hair by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; hair loss by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; to increase strength, to clear urine by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; aphrodisiac, energizer, fever, body ache by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; urinary tract infection, hysteria by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; coughs, mucus by the Hajong community of Baromari village in Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref>]; anemia by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; coughs, abdominal gas by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; vaginitis, burning sensations by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; jaundice, to keep head cool, hair loss, graying of hair by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>]; insomnia by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Phyllanthus reticulatus</italic> Poir.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Blood dysentery by the Pahan tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]; edema, constipation, cooling of body by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; edema, stomachic, insecticidal, diarrhea, dysentery, bronchitis by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; used for cooling purposes during excessive heat by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; stones in gall bladder, kidney or liver, gastrointestinal problems in di8abetic patients by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; chicken pox, swelling of hands or legs by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; stool color black in children by the Mandai tribe of Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref>]; dental caries by the Chakma tribe of Hill Tracts districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>]; chicken pox by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; oral lesions in children by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>]; diarrhea in infants by healers among tea garden workers in Sreemangal [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Senna alata</italic> (L.) Roxb.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Eczema, any type of skin disorders by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; skin diseases by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; skin diseases by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; eczema by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; ringworm by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; ringworm, eczema by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; ringworm by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; eczema, wound, helminthiasis, dermatitis, leucorrhea by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; wet dreams by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; ringworm by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; ringworm by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; scabies by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; skin diseases like tinea infections, scabies, herpes by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; liver diseases by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; skin diseases by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; eczema by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; stomach pain due to bloating or indigestion by the Tonchongya tribal community residing in Keyaju Para in Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>]; ringworm, eczema, itch, scabies, any other skin diseases by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; eczema by the Chakma tribe of Hill Tracts districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>]; eczema by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; sexual disorder by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; skin disorders by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; eczema, constipation by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; eczema by the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Hyptis suaveolens</italic> (L.) Poit.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Malaria, headache, insect repellent by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; constipation by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; gonorrhea by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; constipation by the FMPs of Paikgacha, Khulna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>]; constipation by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; underweight by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Kannapara and Mondumala villages of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>]; liver diseases, cancer, constipation by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; stomach problems, to clear objects from eye by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; loss of libido, to keep body cool, boils by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; constipation, dysentery, acidity by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; leucorrhea in women, low sperm density in men by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; diabetes, jaundice, burning sensations during urination by the Tonchongya tribal community in Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>]; cooling agent, kidney disease, urinary tract infections, dysuria, laxative by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; fever, urinary complications by the Chakma tribe of Hill Tracts districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>]; flatulence, acidity, gastric troubles by the Hajong community of Baromari village in Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref>]; stomach ache in children by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; fever by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Leucas aspera</italic> (Willd.) Link<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Severe headache due to fever, dog bite by the Kole tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]; skin disorders, failure to conceive by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; dysentery, external bleeding, eye inflammation by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; colic by the FMPs of Rampal in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>]; treatment of gastrointestinal and hepatic disorders by FMPs of Bagerhat Sadar in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>]; diarrhea, blood purifier, indigestion, loss of appetite by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; scabies, skin infections by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; chronic coughs by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; peptic ulcer, stomach ache by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; tooth infection, mucus by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district of Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>]; skin problems, scabies, eczema, rheumatic pain, joint pain, coughs, mucus, throat pain, pain or inflammation of or within the body, lesions within the nose, pain or bleeding from the nose by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; headache by the ojhas (tribal medicinal practitioners) of the Santal tribe of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref>]; coughs, blood with cough, colds and associated problems by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; bone fracture, leprosy by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; gout by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; gout by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; pain in bones, body pain, asthma by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; sudden feeling of warmth in head, headache by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; excessive salivating by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; pain with accompanied swelling, goiter in women, respiratory difficulties by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; diarrhea, blood purifier, loss of appetite, indigestion by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; snake bite by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; headache by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; lesions/infections within nostrils by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; severe pain by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; pain in one side of the head, helminthiasis by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; severe pain, rheumatic pain by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; constipation by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; common cold by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; excessive menstrual bleeding by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; tonsillitis, mumps by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; lesions on the tongue, pain due to hemorrhoids by the Murmu tribal community of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref>]; coughs in infants, throat pain by healers among tea garden workers in Sreemangal [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Ocimum gratissimum</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Eczema, cough, mucus by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; heart diseases, eye diseases, cooling of body by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; chest pain, rhinitis, coughs, itching, helminthiasis, ear ache, poisonous snake or reptile bite by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; coughs, appetizer, dysentery, fever by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; coughs, fever by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; colds, coughs by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; fever with convulsions, burning sensations in the body, indigestion, pneumonia, coughs, mucus, tingling sensations in the body by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; rabies, pneumonia by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; coughs, cold by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; cold by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; rheumatic pain by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; coughs, mucus by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; asthma, bronchitis by FMPs of Vitbilia village of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>]; chest pain, coughs, respiratory tract infections by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; fever, coughs, carminative by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; coughs by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; coughs by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; fever wiyh pain by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Allium sativum</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Infertility with seizures by the Hodi tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>]; diabetes in Dhaka [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]; indigestion, sedative, impotency by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; rabies, pneumonia by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; cold, hair loss, diabetes by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; rheumatism by FMPs of four adjoining villages in Narail and Jessore districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref>]; diabetes, jaundice, rheumatism, rheumatic pain, paralysis by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; joint pain by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; rheumatic pain, passing of semen with urine by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; rheumatic pain by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; to reduce fat in the body by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; paralysis, chest cold by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; coughs in children by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; high blood pressure, leprosy by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; stomach disorders by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>]; leprosy, whooping cough, blood pressure by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Lawsonia inermis</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Bloating by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; eczema, leprosy, jaundice by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; cancer, fever, burning sensations during urination, to keep head cool by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; jaundice, swelling and burning sensations due to burns caused from fire, dandruff by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; diabetes, heart diseases, blood dysentery by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; hair loss, leprosy by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; leprosy by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; leg infections, toe nail infections by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; to keep head cool, dandruff in humans, broken shoulder in cattle by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; weakness by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; itch, ear ache by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; gonorrhea, jaundice by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; anti-dandruff, antiseptic, burns by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; to keep head cool by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; eczema, skin diseases by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; excessive bleeding during menstruation by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; eye infections by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; dandruff, skin diseases, sexually transmitted diseases by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; skin infections, blood coming out of mouth, pus in ears by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; severe pain by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; emollient, hair conditioner by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Melastoma malabathricum</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Urinary problems by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; jaundice by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; low sperm count, sperm with urine, jaundice, pain by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; any sort of body pain, diarrhea, dysentery, scabies, abscess, leucorrhea, urinary problems by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; urinary tract infection by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Azadirachta indica</italic> A. Juss.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">To induce fertility, cancer, acne, itch, carminative by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; tooth infections by the Sardar community [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>]; blood dysentery, piles by the Pahan tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]; cuts and wounds, allergy, premature graying of hair by the Khasia tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>]; skin diseases, helminthiasis by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; by the Bauri tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]; skin disorders by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; stomach and heart disorders by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; diabetes in Dhaka [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>]; diarrhea, blood purifier, indigestion, loss of appetite by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; fever, chicken pox, measles, skin diseases by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; cancer, skin diseases, helminthiasis, wounds, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; itches, scabies, allergy, pus formation, skin disorders by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; dental diseases, scabies by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; fever, fever arising out from gall bladder disorders by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; abscess by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref>]; syphilis, skin diseases, scabies, leprosy by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; helminthiasis, itches by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; coughs, respiratory illnesses by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; insecticide by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; considered useful in any type of disease by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; skin diseases, body ache, bone pain, measles, pox, itches, scabies, indigestion, cataract, decreased eye sight, abscess by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; helminthiasis, hepatic pain by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; scabies, eczema, itches by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; irregular menstruation, diabetes by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; all types of pain, fever by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; antiseptic, skin diseases, helminthiasis, pimples, acidity, blood purifier by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; diarrhea, blood purifier, loss of appetite, indigestion by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; good for eyes, to increase lung capacity, fatigue, thirsts, coughs, fever, loss of appetite, helminthiasis, acne, biliary disorders, leprosy, wasting away of body, diabetes by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; skin diseases like scabies and eczema, gum diseases by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; fever, body pain, swelling of knees, injury, rheumatic pain, itches, scabies, infections, considered beneficial in nearly all types of diseases, skin diseases, pyorrhea by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; scabies, itches by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; allergy by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; skin diseases, leucorrhea by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; toothache by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; skin diseases, tooth infections, helminthiasis by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; fever, pain, itches, rheumatic pain, skin infections, bleeding from gums, swelling of gums, tingling sensation in gums, foul odor in mouth by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; skin diseases, allergy by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; severe pain, rheumatic pain by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; stomach and heart disorders by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; to strengthen base of tooth, acne by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; paralysis, skin infections by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; blood purifier by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Nobogram village in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>]; scabies, itches by the Sigibe clan of the Khumi tribe residing in Thanchi sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>]; toothache, itches by the Hajong community of Baromari village in Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref>]; itches, pain by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; diabetes by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; helminthiasis by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; chicken pox, high blood pressure, gastritis, general weakness, jaundice, malaria by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; fever, pain, to prevent tooth infections by the Murmu tribal community of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref>]; pimple, tiredness, coughs, vomiting, gall bladder problems, helminthiasis, pain, dyspepsia, leprosy, acne, gleet, gonorrhea, diabetes by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; skin disorders, tooth infections, foul odor in mouth by the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Ficus hispida</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Insect repellent, diabetes, analgesic by the Santal tribe[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; diabetes, weakness by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; snake bite by the Goala tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; gall bladder diseases by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; dermatitis, carminative, stomachic (for cattle) by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; internal bleeding by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; whooping cough by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; persistent itching, skin irritation, swelling, inflammation by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; physical weakness, malnutrition, leucorrhea, to increase digestion, constipation, flatulence by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; diabetes, leucorrhea by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; to keep healthy, diabetes by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; to aid digestion, constipation by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; diabetes by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; snake bite by the Goala tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>]; hookworm by the Tonchongya tribal community residing in Keyaju Para in Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>]; anxiolytic by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; diabetes by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Moringa oleifera</italic> Lam.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Constipation, epilepsy, abortifacient, skin eruptions, leucoderma by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; rheumatism, chicken pox, snake repellent by the Pahan tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]; nasal catarrh, decreased eye sight, bone fractures, sores by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; skin lesions, cancer, chicken pox by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; diabetes by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; sex stimulant, headache, coughs, mucus by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; paralysis by FMPs of a group of Christians residing in Mirzapore village of Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref>]; appetite stimulant, carminative, heart disorders, rheumatic fever, paralysis, liver pain, to increase bile secretion, sex stimulant by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, leprosy, conjunctivitis, pain by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; sterility by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; puerperal fever, pain, jaundice by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; contraceptive, gout by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; helminthiasis by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; rheumatism, ear disease, headache by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; diabetes, acidity, hypertension by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; hemorrhoids by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; high blood pressure by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; paralysis, body pain by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; to stimulate appetite, roughness of skin, to increase sperm, helminthiasis, obesity, coughs, restless feeling, bloating, swelling due to injury, formation of blood clots on skin, goiter, acne, good for eyes, pain, headache by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; diabetes, frequent urination by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; small pox, chicken pox, anemia by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; diabetes, acidity, hypertension by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; hypertension, swelling of gums, malnutrition by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; hepatitis, jaundice by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; constipation, liver problems, joint pain by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; diabetes by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; indigestion by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; conjunctivitis by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; burning, general weakness, headache, insomnia, high blood pressure, leucorrhea by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; to stimulate appetite, roughness of skin, pain, to increase sperm, acne, helminthiasis, obesity, coughs, flatulence, restless feeling, swelling due to injury, formation of blood clots on skin, goiter, headache by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Psidium guajava</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Diabetes, toothache, carminative by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; diarrhea, debility by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; toothache, acne, diabetes by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; toothache, diarrhea by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; dental pain, gingivitis, scabies by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; hemorrhoids by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; dysentery, coughs, mucus, cold, wounds, respiratory problems, maintain texture of skin, maintain normal heart condition by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; gastric problems, cuts and wounds by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; menstrual problems, diarrhea, tooth infections by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; dysentery, anorexia by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; diarrhea by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; diarrhea, debility by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; uterine prolapse by FMPs of four adjoining villages in Narail and Jessore districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref>]; loss of libido in men, puerperal fever by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; dysentery, to strengthen teeth by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; menstrual problems by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; dysentery by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; dysentery, puerperal fever by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; dysentery by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; for removing stains from teeth by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; to increase strength, sperm count and appetite, hemorrhoids by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Plumbago indica</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">To stop bleeding from cuts and wounds by the Pahan tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>]; abortifacient, leprosy, paralysis, piles, constriction of nerves leading to distortions in hands or feet, stoppage of urination, paralysis by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Kannapara and Mondumala villages of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>]; vitiligo by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; memory enhancer, hemorrhoids by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; blood purifier by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; stomach pain by the Kanda tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>]; hydrocele by the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>]; dysentery by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Persicaria glabra</italic> (Willd.) M. Gómez<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Insect bites, abscess by FMPs of several areas of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Eichhornia crassipes</italic> (Mart.) Solms<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Snake bite, hives by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; hepatic disorders, swelling of one side of abdomen by FMPs of a group of Christians residing in Mirzapore village of Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref>]; insecticidal, astringent by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; fever by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; asthma by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Paederia foetida</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Insanity, mental disorders by the Rai tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]; stomach ailments by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; loss of appetite, indigestion, diarrhea, dysentery, weakness, toothache, cancer by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; bloating, indigestion by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; dyspepsia, constipation, cholera, dysentery of domestic animals by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; tonic, rheumatoid arthritis, colic by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; indigestion, stomach ache by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; bloating by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; coughs, mucus, loss of appetite, rheumatism, pain, dysentery by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; any type of pain by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; body pain by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; internal lesions, stomach problems, to recuperate from illness by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; fractures, to increase strength, to increase sperm, rheumatism, pain, hemorrhoids, skin allergy, constipation by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; chronic dysentery, dysentery by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; indigestion by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; rheumatic pain, burning sensations during urination by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; toothache by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; appetizer by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Aegle marmelos</italic> (L.) Corr.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Anti-inflammatory, constipation, blood dysentery, diabetes by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; to keep head cool, sprain, fracture by the Rai tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]; indigestion, loss of appetite, constipation, weakness, dysentery, snake bite, skin infections by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; constipation, dysentery, indigestion, pain by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; urinary bladder stone by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; sedative by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; pain under the umbilicus and stomach ache due to worms, constipation, decreased sperm count, aphrodisiac by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; indigestion, cooling of body, appetizer, loss of libido, weakness, paralysis by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; dysentery, peptic ulcer by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; puerperal fever, pain, waist pain, debility, jaundice, blood with stool, stomach ache by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; indigestion, hemorrhoids, constipation, respiratory problems, inflammation, poisonous insect or snake bite, heart palpitations, fever, cleaning of bowels by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; to keep body cool, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, stringent, repeat fevers, contagious fevers, frequent urination (diabetes) by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; flatulence by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; liver disorder, sun stroke, jaundice, constipation, sexual disorder, hemorrhoids, apepsia (in cattle) by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; excessive blood during menstruation, diseases of the scrotum by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; chronic dysentery, diabetes by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; to remove foul odor of sweat, vomiting in children by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; to remove odor from sweat, incoherency or insanity, acidity, ear diseases, eye diseases by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; chronic dysentery, constipation, indigestion by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; digestive aid by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; acidity, skin allergy, excessive sexual desire, carminative, coughs, astringent by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; uterine prolapse by FMPs of four adjoining villages in Narail and Jessore districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref>]; long-term fever with abnormally high body temperature by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; blood dysentery, spermatorrhea, snake bite, to increase functions of brain, stomach, heart and liver, diarrhea, dysentery, low density of semen, insomnia, weakness of heart, mucus, fever with mucus, excessive thirst, vomiting, constipation by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; dysentery, to remove foul odor from sweat, insanity, acidity, ear diseases, eye diseases by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; dysentery, constipation, excessive bleeding during menstruation by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; blood dysentery, to increase memory, constipation, to prevent stomach upsets by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; flatulence, constipation, stomach pain by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; dysentery, to remove odor of sweat by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; severe pain, gastric problem by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; constipation by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe of Moulvibazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]; acne by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; sexual disorder in males by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; flatulence by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Nobogram village in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>]; stomach pain, dysentery with blood by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; chronic dysentery by FMPs of four villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>]; vomiting by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; jaundice, indigestion by the Murmu tribal community of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref>]; to increase digestive capability, coughs, flatulence, to keep body cool, to clear stool by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; dysentery, diarrhea by the Tripura tribe residing in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref>]; dysentery, to keep stomach cool, sudden bouts of vomiting by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>]; dysentery, diarrhea by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Santalum album</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Tuberculosis, debility, burning sensations during urination by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; loss of sexual desire, to induce a satisfactory feeling in body, slight edema, mucus, biliary disorders, blood purifier, burning sensations in the body by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; leucorrhea, sexual weakness by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; headache, chronic coughs, discoloration of facial skin, gonorrhea, abnormal heart palpitations, hypertension, b lood purifier by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; to remove scar marks or marks due to burns, skin diseases by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; mucus by TMPs of a Mro tribal community residing at Gazalia Union of Bandarbans district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>]; cough by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; eczema, coughs by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Scoparia dulcis</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Coughs in children, diarrhea by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; dysentery by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; diabetes, cuts and wounds, gastric ulcer, weakness, fever, coughs, bronchitis, diarrhea, dysentery, edema, diabetes, toothache by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; diarrhea, dysentery and colic by FMPs of Rampal in Bagerhat district, and for constipation by FMPs of Paikgacha in Khulna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>]; sexual disorders by FMPs of Bagerhat Sadar in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>]; urinary problems by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; sexual diseases, nerve disorders by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; respiratory problems, to stimulate appetite by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; ulcer by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district of Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>]; blood dysentery by the ojhas (tribal medicinal practitioners) of the Santal tribe of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref>]; diabetes by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref>]; infertility, leucorrhea, malaria, dog bite, debility, hemorrhoids by FMPs of villages by the Bangali River in Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; debility, premature ejaculation by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; gastric ulcer by FMPs of five villages in Narsinghdi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; urinary problems by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; continuous hiccups by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; dysentery in children by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; body ache, gastric ulcer by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; burning sensations during urination by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; gastric ulcer, anemia by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; urinary problems by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; aphrodisiac, sexual disorders, dysentery, diabetes by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; dysentery, white dysentery (passing of mucus with stool), any injury causing pain by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; appetite stimulant, diabetes, dysentery by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; leucorrhea by FMPs of Barobazar village, Jhenidaha district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>]; gastric problems, ulcer by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; pain in chin or throat, tonsillitis, throat cancer, facial redness, skin diseases by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; ‘meho’ by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; diarrhea in children by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; gastric problems, dysentery, diabetes by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; jaundice by the Rai Kshatriya tribe of Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref>]; snake and insect bite, antidote to poison by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; spermatorrhea by the Pankho community of Bilaichari Union in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>]; stomach ache in infants by healers among tea garden workers in Sreemangal [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Smilax macrophylla</italic> Roxb.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Rheumatism, body pain by FMPs of two areas of Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Physalis micrantha</italic> Link<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Ear ache by the Khatriya and Kashya clans of the Bagdi tribe of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Pouzolzia zeylanica</italic> (L.) Benn.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom"> <hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Clerodendrum viscosum</italic> Vent.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Skin eruption, fever, dysentery by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; diabetes by the Marakh sect of the Garo tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>]; feeling of weakness during times of menstruation by the Harbang clan of the Tripura tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>]; colic pain by the Garo tribe inhabiting Madhupur forest region [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; intestinal worms by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; coughs, asthma, skin diseases, snake bite, gonorrhea, low semen density, leucorrhea by FMPs of Noakhali district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>]; pain in body, blood purifier by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; lice infections by the Garo tribe inhabiting Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>]; coughs in children by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; helminthiasis, gastric ulcer by FMPs of a group of Christians residing in Mirzapore village of Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref>]; nausea, vomiting, puerperal fever by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; tonic, gastritis, dermatitis, dysentery by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; diabetes by FMPs and tribal medicinal practitioners (TMPs) of Khakiachora village in Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref>]; fever in children, toothache, pain in gums by FMPs of Dhamrai sub-district of Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref>]; helminthiasis, toothache, lesions within the ear, fever with convulsions, malaria by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; stomach pain, acidity, redness of eye, malarial fever, fever, coughs, helminthiasis, respiratory problems by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; helminthiasis, infections from scorpion bites by the Santal tribe residing in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref>]; itches by FMPs of villages by the Padma River in Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; gastrointestinal disorders by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; helminthiasis by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; blood dysentery, dysentery, infections by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; pain by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; helminthiasis, frequent urination by FMPs of Shekhertek and Badarganj villages in Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref>]; hookworm infections by FMPs of Barisal Town in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref>]; all types of pain, fever by FMPs of three villages in Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref>]; fever, burning sensations in the body, helminthiasis by FMPs of six villages in Greater Naogaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>]; skin diseases, sexual weakness by FMPs of seven villages of Ishwardy sub-district in Pabna district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>]; pain in body, blood purifier by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; sialorrhea, helminthiasis by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; fever by FMPs of Uttar Musrat Madati and Kisasat Madati villages in Lalmonirhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>]; waist pain by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; dysentery by FMPs of Jool chotro and Janga lia villages of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>]; jaundice by FMPs of six villages in Thakurgaon district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>]; frequent urination, diabetes by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; pain by the Bongshi tribe of Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>]; malarial fever, any type of stomach pain by the Tonchongya tribal community residing in Keyaju Para in Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>]; liver problems by a FMP of Savar in Dhaka district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref>]; burning sensations in the chest, salty taste in mouth when burping, flatulence, gastric pain by the Sigibe clan of the Khumi tribe residing in Thanchi sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>]; dental caries, abdominal pain by the Chakma tribe of Hill Tracts districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>]; diarrhea by the Hajong community of Baromari village in Netrakona district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref>]; swollen legs and blisters by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; helminthiasis, rheumatic pain by folk medicinal herbalists in seven villages of Bhola district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Lantana camara</italic> L.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Fever by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom"><italic>Alpinia nigra</italic> (Gaertn.) Burtt.<hr></hr></td><td align="left" valign="bottom">Hemorrhoids, pain, arthritis by the Khasia tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>]; loss of sensation in hands and legs by the Marma tribal community residing in Naikhongchaari, Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>]; stomach disorders by the Rakhain tribe of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>]; indigestion, stomach pain, bloating, acidity by the TMPs of Tripura tribe residing in Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>]; swelling of face in cattle, cattle lice by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; gastrointestinal disorders (acidity, stomach ache, diarrhea), sudden bouts of fainting, vertigo by the Tonchongya tribal community of Roangchaari sub-district of Bandarban district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>]; jaundice, gastric ulcers by the Chakma tribe of Hill Tracts districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref>].<hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><italic>Curcuma longa</italic> L.</td><td align="left">Hypotonia (reduced muscle strength), scabies, leucoderma, to increase fertility in women, acne by the Santal tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>]; kala azar by the Rai tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>]; skin disorders by the folk medicinal practitioners (FMPs) of Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>]; wet dream, scabies, eczema by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; helminthiasis, itches by FMPs of Sylhet Division [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref>]; passing of semen with urine, leucorrhea by the Soren clan of the Santal tribe residing in Kannapara and Mondumala villages of Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>]; jaundice, diarrhea, dysentery, small pox, eczema, gonorrhea, sedative by FMPs in five villages of Boalia sub-district, Rajshahi district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref>]; jaundice, skin disorders, to increase brightness of skin by FMPs of Shitol Para village, Jhalokati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>]; gonorrhea, helminthiasis, sore throat, hepatitis, appetizer, allergy, eye disorder by FMPs of villages in Natore and Rajshahi districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>]; acne by FMPs of Daudkandi sub-district in Comilla district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref>]; snake bite by FMPs of Bheramara area in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>]; allergy, skin diseases, scabies, leprosy by FMPs of Rahmatpur village by the Ghaghot River, Rangpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>]; skin diseases by by FMPs of Vasu Bihar village, Bogra district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref>]; excessive bile secretion by FMPs of Balidha village in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>]; allergy by FMPs of Station Purbo Para village in Jamalpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>]; filariasis by FMPs of Shetabganj village in Dinajpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>]; to improve skin texture, sprain by FMPs of Daulatdia Ghat in Kushtia district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref>]; arthritis, gout by FMPs of three areas of Pirojpur district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>]; jaundice, tumor, sprain, dermatitis, conjunctivitis, small pox, colic by FMPs of two villages by the Rupsha River in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref>]; wet dream, scabies, eczema by FMPs of Babla and Terbaria villages in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref>]; excessive sexual desire, rheumatism, leprosy, diabetes, edema by FMPs of three villages in Sreepur sub-district in Magura district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref>]; skin diseases (scabies, eczema), gum diseases by FMPs of Paschim Shawra and Palordi villages of Gaurnadi sub-district in Barisal district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>]; edema by FMPs of Khulna City, Bangladesh [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>]; allergy, helminthiasis in children by FMPs of Fulbaria, Baguri, and Bagh-achra villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>]; blood purifier, stomach disorders by FMPs of Shonapur, Chorkulte, and Majhbari villages of Rajbari district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>]; skin diseases by FMPs of Arpara and Munshefpur villages in Jessore district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref>]; helminthiasis, skin diseases, loss of appetite, to increase memory by the FMP of Kasipur village in Narayanganj district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref>]; hypertension by the TMPs of the Baburo, Haduga and Larma clans of the Chakma tribe residing in Rangamati district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>]; bone fracture, sprain by FMPs of Baghbhandar, Sonahat and Kumarpara villages in Kurigram district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>]; rheumatic pain by FMPs of several villages of Faridpur and Rajbari districts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>]; cough, eczema by Tripura community of Hazarikhil in Chittagong district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>]; coughs, eczema by the Rakhaing community of Cox’s Bazar district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>]; to improve skin color, to control excessive sexual desire, rheumatism, leprosy, diabetes, edema by FMPs of Shat-tola Bazaar and Talbari villages in Bagerhat district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>]; diarrhea, dysentery by the Teli clan of the Telegu tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>]; to whiten complexion by healers among tea garden workers in Sreemangal [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>]; blood disease by the Chakma community of Chittagong Hill Tracts [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref>].</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><p>Essentially, the Deb barma medicinal plants (Table <xref ref-type="table" rid="T3">3</xref>) can be classified into four parts. First, a limited number of plants, which have many reported uses, but where there is a consensus among the various folk and tribal medicinal practitioners on the major use (even though there may be other reported uses) of the given plant. Examples of such plants are <italic>Justicia adhatoda</italic> (majority of healers using the plant for treatment of respiratory tract infections and particularly coughs), <italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic> (majority of healers using the plant for treatment of cardiovascular disorders), and <italic>Senna alata</italic> (most healers using the plant for treatment of skin diseases). Among the second category are plants with multiple reports of uses, but where use of the given plant for therapeutic purposes varies widely between different healers. Examples of these types of plants are <italic>Andrographis paniculata</italic>, <italic>Centella asiatica</italic>, <italic>Alstonia scholaris</italic>, <italic>Asparagus racemosus</italic>, <italic>Terminalia bellirica</italic>, <italic>Terminalia chebula</italic>, <italic>Azadirachta indica</italic>, <italic>Moringa oleifera</italic>, <italic>Aegle marmelos</italic>, <italic>Curcuma longa</italic> and <italic>Scoparia dulcis</italic>. The third category of plants include plants like <italic>Aerva sanguinolenta</italic>, <italic>Crinum latifolium</italic>, <italic>Colocasia esculenta</italic>, <italic>Sansevieria hyacinthoides</italic>, <italic>Melastoma malabathricum</italic>, <italic>Eichhornia crassipes</italic>, <italic>Physalis micrantha</italic>, <italic>Persicaria glabra</italic>, <italic>Smilax macrophylla</italic>, <italic>Sansevieria hyacinthoides</italic>, <italic>Garcinia cowa</italic> and <italic>Lantana camara</italic>, whose reported uses by FMPs or TMPs are less in number. In fact, <italic>Physalis micrantha</italic>, <italic>Persicaria glabra</italic>, <italic>Smilax macrophylla</italic>, <italic>Sansevieria hyacinthoides</italic>, <italic>Garcinia cowa</italic> and <italic>Lantana camara</italic> each have only one reported ethnomedicinal use in Bangladesh besides their use by the Deb barma healer. The fourth category includes plant like <italic>Pouzolzia zeylanica</italic>, whose use appears to be unique to the Deb barma healer in the sense that its ethnomedicinal uses in Bangladesh are yet to be reported to the best of our knowledge. Thus use of this plant by the Deb barma can be considered novel.</p><p>A number of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma healer had at least one reported similar ethnomedicinal use by FMPs or TMPs of Bangladesh. To cite a few instances, <italic>Andrographis paniculata</italic> used by the Deb barma healer for treatment of malaria has been reported to be used for treatment of malarial fever by the Bauri tribal community [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]. <italic>Justicia adhatoda</italic> has been reported to be used for treatment of skin infections by the Kanda tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>] and tuberculosis by FMPs in Tangail district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>]; the plant was used by the Deb barma healer to treat skin infections as well as tuberculosis. <italic>Justicia gendarussa</italic>, used by the Deb barma healer for treatment of coughs and malaria, has been reported to be used for treatment of coughs by the Naik clan of the Rajbongshi tribe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>]. <italic>Aerva sanguinolenta</italic>, used by the Deb barma healer for treatment of cuts and wounds, reportedly has similar use [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>]. The same applies for the use of <italic>Crinum latifolium</italic> for treatment of bloating in cattle by the Deb barma healer; the plant has been reported to be used for indigestion in cattle (which can lead to bloating) by the Khasia tribe of Sylhet district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>]. However, some uses are unique to the Deb barma healer, being not reported from elsewhere in Bangladesh. These include use of <italic>Alstonia scholaris</italic> for treatment of formation of whitish layer on tongue, use of <italic>Terminalia arjuna</italic> for treatment of burning sensations during urination, use of <italic>Phyllanthus emblica</italic> for treatment of paralysis, use of <italic>Sansevieria hyacinthoides</italic> for treatment of snake bite and as snake repellent, the use of <italic>Garcinia cowa</italic> for treatment of coughs and colds, and use of <italic>Melastoma malabathricum</italic> for treatment of cuts and wounds, to cite a few examples.</p></sec><sec><title>Relevance of uniqueness of several Deb barma medicinal plants and their uses</title><p>The uniqueness of use of some medicinal plants for therapeutic purposes by the Deb barma healer suggests that these plants (like <italic>Physalis micrantha</italic>, <italic>Persicaria glabra</italic>, <italic>Smilax macrophylla</italic>, <italic>Sansevieria hyacinthoides</italic>, <italic>Garcinia cowa</italic>, <italic>Pouzolzia zeylanica</italic> and <italic>Lantana camara</italic>) be scientifically examined for their relevant pharmacological activities, which can validate their traditional uses. A number of plants used by the Deb barma healer have been shown earlier to have scientific validations in their traditional uses. Such scientific studies and validations can be important from at least three view points. First, it establishes confidence among scientists, doctors as well as the general people that traditional medicine can be useful and safe to use. Second, such scientific studies can lead the way to possible discovery of lead compounds and drugs from the medicinal plants. Third, the rural people can benefit a lot from using these plants for therapeutic purposes instead of allopathic drugs, which may be costly for them, or like in most rural areas of Bangladesh, inaccessible, due to absence of modern doctors and health facilities. As such, use of traditional medicine can lower the medical costs (because in general herbal drugs are cheaper than allopathic drugs in Bangladesh) and so benefit the poorer segments of the population, who form the majority of people in Bangladesh and other developing countries.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="conclusions"><title>Conclusion</title><p>The Deb barma clan is a comparatively small clan of the Tripura tribe with its current total population at only 135 members in Srimangal of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh. Their ethnomedicinal practices have not been previously reported although they have their own traditional medicinal system and their own traditional healer. Interviews with the healer and adult members of the clan indicated that they believed diseases to occur from the curses of a particular evil god, or caused by evil spirits and demons. Their traditional methods of curing included oral or topical use of medicinal plants, wearing of amulets, appeasement of the evil god through worship and offerings, and treatment of black magic-induced disease with counter-black magic.</p><p>A survey of the existing literature showed that the use of a number of plants by the traditional healer for treatment of specific ailments could be scientifically validated based on the reported pharmacological activities of the plants used. The tribal medicinal system of the Deb barma clan showed a notable similarity with Ayurvedic form of treatment (which is considered the most ancient form of treatment within the Indian sub-continent) in terms of plant used and ailments treated. Considering that the two systems had probably interacted with each other for at least two thousand years, it is very much plausible that each system could have influenced the other. However, medicinal uses of a number of the plants differed between the Deb barma clan and other tribes of Bangladesh, the medicinal practices of which have been documented. The differences indicate the importance of documenting the medicinal practices of as many tribes as possible to obtain an overall view of the diverse uses of any given plant species.</p><p>Our interviews further suggested that in recent years, the Deb barma clan members may have started to prefer allopathic system more than their traditional medicinal system. If this happens, the ethnomedicinal wisdom of the Deb barma clan may be lost forever, if not documented. Since already the usage of a number of their traditional medicinal plants has been validated through scientific research, it is important that the yet to be studied plants be examined scientifically as to their pharmacological properties and their phytochemical constituents. Such studies can be beneficial to human beings if new and more efficacious medicines can be discovered from these plants.</p></sec><sec><title>Competing interests</title><p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p></sec><sec><title>Authors’ contributions</title><p>MHK, NH, MMR, MAR, JAK, NTH, MRQB, and SMM participated and completed the ethnomedicinal survey under the supervision of MR and submitted an initial report of the survey. MR and RJ analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. 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