Future options in landscape ecology: development and research
Identifieur interne : 000A68 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 000A67; suivant : 000A69Future options in landscape ecology: development and research
Auteurs : Patrick Xiuzhen Li ; Ülo ManderSource :
- Progress in Physical Geography [ 0309-1333 ] ; 2009-02.
Abstract
The aim of this brief overview is to highlight some new and promising research fields in landscape ecology, which is essentially an interdisciplinary field of study. We also analyse the development of some classical branches of landscape ecology regarding pattern and process relationships at broad spatial and temporal scales, such as landscape metrics, the influence of anthropogenic factors and global climate change on landscape development, the fragmentation of ecosystems and disturbances of populations, and material and energy cycling in and between ecosystems.
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DOI: 10.1177/0309133309103888
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We also analyse the development of some classical branches of landscape ecology regarding pattern and process relationships at broad spatial and temporal scales, such as landscape metrics, the influence of anthropogenic factors and global climate change on landscape development, the fragmentation of ecosystems and disturbances of populations, and material and energy cycling in and between ecosystems.</div></front></TEI><istex><corpusName>sage</corpusName><author><json:item><name>Xiuzhen Li</name><affiliations><json:string>State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China</json:string></affiliations></json:item><json:item><name>Ülo Mander</name><affiliations><json:string>Department of Geography, University of Tartu, 46 Vanemuise St. Tartu, 51014, Estonia,</json:string><json:string>E-mail: ulo.mander@ut.ee</json:string></affiliations></json:item></author><subject><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>global change</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>landscape aesthetics</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>landscape genetics</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>landscape perception</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>landscape planning</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>marine space ecology</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>natural disasters</value></json:item><json:item><lang><json:string>eng</json:string></lang><value>seascape.</value></json:item></subject><articleId><json:string>10.1177_0309133309103888</json:string></articleId><language><json:string>eng</json:string></language><originalGenre><json:string>research-article</json:string></originalGenre><abstract>The aim of this brief overview is to highlight some new and promising research fields in landscape ecology, which is essentially an interdisciplinary field of study. 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We also analyse the development of some classical branches of landscape ecology regarding pattern and process relationships at broad spatial and temporal scales, such as landscape metrics, the influence of anthropogenic factors and global climate change on landscape development, the fragmentation of ecosystems and disturbances of populations, and material and energy cycling in and between ecosystems.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>global change</kwd><kwd>landscape aesthetics</kwd><kwd>landscape genetics</kwd><kwd>landscape perception</kwd><kwd>landscape planning</kwd><kwd>marine space ecology</kwd><kwd>natural disasters</kwd><kwd>seascape.</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-wrap><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>sagemeta-type</meta-name><meta-value>Journal Article</meta-value></custom-meta><custom-meta xlink:type="simple"><meta-name>search-text</meta-name><meta-value>31 Future options in landscape ecology: development and research SAGE Publications, Inc.200910.1177/0309133309103888 Xiuzhen Li State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China ÜloMander Department of Geography, University of Tartu, 46 Vanemuise St. Tartu, 51014, Estonia, ulo.mander@yt.ee The aim of this brief overview is to highlight some new and promising research fields in landscape ecology, which is essentially an interdisciplinary field of study. We also analyse the development of some classical branches of landscape ecology regarding pattern and process relationships at broad spatial and temporal scales, such as landscape metrics, the influence of anthropogenic factors and global climate change on landscape development, the fragmentation of ecosystems and disturbances of populations, and material and energy cycling in and between ecosystems. global change landscape aesthetics landscape genetics landscape perception landscape planning marine space ecology natural disasters seascape. I Introduction Recent decades have seen rapid progress in landscape ecology from its traditional centre of study in Europe to the rest of the world. One of the driving forces of this de- velopment is the need for scienti c know- ledge to guide human activities towards a sustainable future on a rapidly changing planet. In places where economic growth is particularly rapid and spatial heterogeneity is fundamentally important, landscape ecol- ogy as an interdisciplinary scienti c discipline can play an active role with its integrated ideas, which are derived from a variety of theoretical backgrounds, such as earth sci- ences, biology, system science and aesthetics. In Wu and Hobbs (2002), the top 10 topics of landscape ecology are addressed, while Turner (2005a; 2005b) further describes the present `scienti c status' of landscape ecology. Both address the future develop- ment possibilities and research elds of land- scape ecology, but it is impossible to ignore the past and begin future research in a com- pletely new way. Some of the key issues at present will still be valid in the future – for *Author for correspondence. Email: ulo.mander@ut.ee 32 example, emphasizing broad spatial scales and the ecological effects of the spatial pattern- ing of ecosystems (Turner, 1989); integrating humans activity into landscape ecology; and optimization of landscape pattern (Wu and Hobbs, 2002). As Turner (2005a: 319) points out, `Landscape ecology should continue to refine knowledge of when spatial hetero- geneity is fundamentally important, rigorously test the generality of its concepts, and de- velop a more mechanistic understanding of the relations between pattern and process'. There should, however, be new foci in the future, corresponding to emerging needs of human beings, as well as the theoretical and methodological development of landscape ecology itself. This paper highlights some of the new research elds in landscape ecology, which has developed rapidly over the last two de- cades. We also give a brief overview of the development of some elds of classical land- scape ecology, such as landscape metrics and its use for the better understanding of pattern and process relationships. II Methods The methodology centres on an analysis of papers published in international peer- reviewed journals indexed by the Institute of Science Information (ISI) Web of Science (WoS) from 1970 to October 2008. The terms and their combinations appearing in the titles, key words and/or abstracts of the papers and utilized for the analysis are presented in Table 1. In addition, the results of a recent analysis of the use of landscape metrics and landscape indices (Uuemaa et al., 2009) are also used. Based upon the trends identi ed from the analysis, some new and probably promising areas which might signi cantly change the dis- cipline of landscape ecology are highlighted. III Results of literature analysis Since the 1990s, after the publication of groundbreaking books by Naveh and Lieberman (1984) and Forman and Godron (1986), the number of papers in scientific journals about landscape ecology has increased signi cantly (Figure 1). The majority of 1599 (by October 15, 2008) ISI WoS refereed papers that had the term `landscape ecology' in their titles, keywords and/or abstracts were dedicated to pattern and process analysis, in particular concerning the analysis of landscape fragmentation, metapopulation dynamics, landscape structure (landscape metrics and indices), nutrient cycling and the relationships of these phenomena. According to Uuemaa et al. (2009), the ISI WoS literature database has refereed 337 articles in which the term `landscape metrics' was used, whereas the term `landscape indices' appeared in 141 articles. In fact, the number of papers in the whole eld of the investigation of landscape ecology may be somewhat greater, because the literature search did not take into account all of the versions and combinations in this particular eld. In comparison to research papers on land- scape ecology, the number of papers from Table ~ Terms and their combinations appearing in the titles, key words and/or abstracts of the papers utilized in the literature analysis 33 i e s h l t da n r n u a o s j m rn ei y g T ~ o . t8l n0o c e u0 o2 rce ecp baa c os o t cd t n in a O nl ef o ko t s 0 a d 7 t l 9 n e1e e bmt on e r e r vf )e a f f S h i so td Wn c (ai r ets csn bo ni t a e a i c c du ni Sl fb ao ou s p d b r of o e Wn w )yr eIe t S k It (a , P s n e l to ii tt 'a se rmr u er g po ai f n F I p+3 C m 00 O g -0 ~ £-?■£ 14- ~ ~ n 00 D- C - will O O cue ~ ~ £J3S C'4" r) 4) 4- V) ~ ~ ~ 36 Despite the many advantages of landscape metrics and their extensive use, there are also inherent limitations (Li and Wu, 2004): many landscape metrics are mutually correlated (O'Neill et al., 1999; Hargis et al., 1998; Botequilha Leitão and Ahern, 2002); there are dif culties interpreting landscape metrics (Gustafson, 1998; Hargis et al., 1998; Turner et al., 2001), and they are scale-dependent (Wickham and Riitters, 1995; Grif th et al., 2000; Tischendorf, 2001; Wu et al., 2002; Uuemaa et al., 2005; 2008). Two primary scaling factors affect measures of landscape pattern: grain is the resolution of the data (pixel size) and extent refers to the size of the mapped or studied area (Gustafson, 1998). Therefore, in spatial analysis, it is always im- portant to keep clear which resolution and extent one should use. The latest research results by Cushman et al. (2008) indicate that there are consistent combinations of land- scape metrics that universally describe the major attributes of landscape structure at the class and landscape levels. V New and promising research areas in landscape ecology 1 Marine space ecology Landscape ecology traditionally studies ter- restrial systems; however, the questions and methods of landscape ecology are equally relevant for marine and coastal systems. The reciprocal relationship between spatial pattern and ecological processes at different scales has been increasingly explored in various marine and coastal settings (Hinchey et al., 2008). In the literature analysis, there is a slow, but clearly increasing, trend of papers concerning the combination of land- scape ecology and marine research. In add- ition, articles on `Seascape' studies have been considered (Figure 1). To avoid the ter- minological problems (eg, landscape versus seascape, use of the term `Seascape' only for scenic purposes, which was predominant in papers until the 1990s), we propose that Marine Space Ecology should be the optimal name for such an application of the principles of landscape ecology in the investigation of marine and coastal ecosystems. In contrast to the predominant studies of territorial landscape ecology, oating bio- mass and its habitat in the marine space have yet to be investigated, due to the dif culties of data collection and the uncertainty of the study object (Bell et al., 1999; Galindo et al., 2006; Hinchey et al., 2008). Whether or not the methods used for territorial landscape ecology can be transferred to the marine environment is also under consideration (Meynecke et al., 2008), but the need for large-scale ecological studies in the marine or seascape system is still increasing, due to the ever-increasing human need for a wide variety of resources (Hinchey et al., 2008). Until now, most attempts involving marine systems have been conducted in tropical areas or coastal zones. In her PhD dissertation, Jelbart (2004) applied these methods in the terrestrial re- search of landscape ecology and tested the in uence of seascape spatial features on sh and macro-invertebrates in seagrass beds. The study was performed in a temperate Australian estuary. Jelbart found that the spatial structure of seagrass beds (size and shape), the patchiness of the seagrass cover and its location within the estuary (close to or far from the estuary mouth) were correlated with the assemblages of sh within seagrass beds. Moreover, the connectivity of habitats (seagrass beds and mangrove forests) within the seascape also contributed to the faunal assemblages of those habitats. Tanner (2006) performed similar re- search along the Australian coast, focusing on the effect of the surrounding matrix on the epifauna in the seagrass patches. It was found that faunal assemblages in patches of Posidonia surrounded by sand were different from those surrounded by Heterozostera, an- other seagrass, which had more than double the abundance of both amphipods and polychaetes. Patch size also had an effect on Heterozostera, with smaller patches having 37 2–3 times as many isopods per sample as larger ones, but less than half the number of some amphipod families. These results sug- gested that landscape context is as important in marine systems as it is known to be in ter- restrial systems (Aviron et al., 2005; Warren et al., 2005; Eyre, 2006; Hins et al., 2009). Pittman et al. (2007) modelled the rich- ness of sh species across shallow-water sea- scapes in the Caribbean Sea by combining remotely sensed data and eld observation data with GIS. Habitat variables such as rugosity, bathymetric variance, water depth, area of seagrass and area of hard bottom were incorporated, and the model proved to be effective in predicting species richness in coral reef ecosystems at large scale. There- fore, the means of habitat analysis used in terrestrial landscapes can also be applied to marine systems. 2 Landscape ecology and global change At present, global change is evident, and there is wide consensus that the speed of the Earth's climate change is now the greatest it has been during the last 100,000 years (IPCC, 2007). Thousands of scienti c papers have studied this change, and several have shown the clear response of ecosystems' clear response to this (Walther et al., 2002; Parmesan and Yohe, 2003): for instance shift- ing the vegetation zones (Morin et al., 2008) and changing biodiversity (Thuiller et al., 2005). At the same time, the landscape eco- logical approach is almost completely absent in the concept of global climate change (Cumming, 2007). Climate change, however, also increases uncertainty in predictions (Thuiller et al., 2004; Stainforth et al., 2005), making the possible mitigation and manage- ment process very complicated. Using the integrated landscape concept, however, it may be possible to improve the decision- making process. a Large-scale ecological response of frozen zone to global changes: At high altitudes and latitudes, global climate change and ubiquitous human disturbance have extensively altered the landscape and its functions (Golosov and Panin, 2006). The active layer of the perma- frost is very sensitive to changes in temper- ature, soil moisture and physical stresses. Frequent freeze-thawing processes and elevated temperature often have direct or indirect impacts on vegetation productivity, species composition, the decomposition process and soil and hydrological processes (Peck, 2005; Jyrkama and Sykes, 2007; Wang et al., 2007). The huge permafrost area in northern Eurasia and North America is already known to be one of the main areas threatened by further global warming be- cause of the positive feedback loop of meth- ane emission and increasing air temperature (Christensen, 1993; Christensen and Cox, 1995; Joabsson and Christensen, 2001; Friborg et al., 2003; Anisimov, 2007; Wille et al., 2008). Since population density is relatively low, landscape ecological studies that have been conducted in such areas are less representative compared to those in warmer zones. However, the frozen zone also obtains benefits from global warming, although the favoured area is rather limited. For example, the productivity of rice increased by 12.8–16.1% in the 1980s and 23.2–28.8% in the 1990s in the Heilongjiang Province of China, due to the elevated temperature and longer growth period (Fang et al., 2004). The productivity of soybean could even in- crease as much as 70–80% if the annual tem- perature were to increase 2.4°C by 2050, as Zhang et al. (2004) have predicted. Tan and Shibasaki (2003) have pointed out that global warming will be particularly harmful to global agriculture if the present crop system continues. Adjustments to farming could, however, potentially offset the negative effects of climate change on crop production. Tan and Shibasaki's simu- lation (2003) also showed a relative increase in crop productivity in the `cold countries' of the Northern Hemisphere, for instance Canada, Lithuania and Russia. 38 b Adaptation to global change: Future stu- dies need to focus more on species adaptation and migration in response to climate change and disturbance regimes (see Hulme, 2005; Hellmann and Pineda-Krch, 2007). Crop sys- tem adjustment is also needed for agricultural adaptation (Easterling, 1996), taking useful lessons from history (Orlove, 2005). Both positive and negative effects should be con- sidered while taking action to deal with the global warming problem. Likewise, it is necessary to consider the adaptation of the entire socio-economic system (Holman et al., 2005) as well as different aspects of human perceptions of that adaptation (see Alessa et al., 2008). 3 Multiregional ecology and transdisciplinary research Bird u around the world reminds people that different regions can be affected by the same diseases due to the migration of avian fauna. Bird habitats in different climatic zones need to be considered both for scienti c reasons and for disease control. Human activities that affect birds' habitat quality and quantity at a particular life stage may in uence their migration and health status, and eventually in uence the survival of the entire species, especially that of rare or endangered species (Roslin, 2002; Gardner and Heinsohn, 2006). Protection activities for those species should be integrated among different regions and among different scientific disciplines, such as biology, behavioural ecology, epidemi- ology and other medical sciences. The Sino- Australian, Sino-Korean and Sino-Japanese conventions on the protection of migratory birds and their habitats are good examples of multiregional cooperation (China Web, 2003a; 2003b). Other long-distance migratory animals have similar problems, such as large mammals in East Africa and many sh species in the oceans. If the breeding or wintering habitat is seriously disturbed, the whole population may be endangered. The habitats of different life stages of migratory animals are, however, often quite far from each other. This creates problems for the protection of these animal species and requires cooperative action among related regions (Chen and Yang, 2008). Similar problems have been caused by the intensi ed international communication among different regions and populations, for example SARS, exotic species invasion and aboriginal species extinction. In the spring of 2003, `SARS panic' seized the whole world, especially China. But the problem originated from a small mammal, Paguma larvata, which does not migrate long distances (Zhou et al., 2008). The disease was spread by the `migra- tion' of human beings. Eupatorium adeno- phorum and Spartina alterniflora are two annoying exotic ora species that hindered the growth of native species in China (Zheng and Feng, 2005; Jiang et al., 2009). To avoid potential problems like this, great caution should be exercised in species introduction between different regions. Water ow is another factor that connects different regions that are far from each other, especially in the case of long rivers. Water quality and quantity in headwater streams often influence downstream areas. Dams in catchments for hydroelectric power and water supply often change the freshwater and sedimentation regimes in inland and coastal deltas. For example, the Three Gorges Dam inin central China has already resulted in brackish water intrusion (Cao et al., 2006) and coastal erosion (Yang et al., 2007) in the downstream portion of the Yangtze River. The socio- economic influence of human activities at the whole catchment level is much broader than the geographical or ecological effects alone. Large-scale population migration was arranged by the government during the Three Gorges Dam project, and the lifestyle and farming structure of the people remain- ing there have also changed substantially. On the other hand, the Three Gorges Dam significantly influences local ecosystems, causing more fragmentation and providing an 39 interesting experiment for studies of large- scale disturbances in the dynamics of habitats and plant and animal populations (Wu et al., 2003). Such examples suggest that much more attention should be paid to the topic, with em- phasis on multiregional ecological relation- ships and cooperative protection activities. 4 Disaster prevention and control With rapid economic growth, the annual average world economic loss associated with natural disasters has increased exponentially since the 1960s (UNDP, 2004). The new mil- lennium has already witnessed disasters, such as the tsunami in southeastern Asia (Decem- ber 2004) and Hurricane Katrina in the USA (August 2005). Landscape ecology in com- bination with ecological engineering can play an active role in planning development alternatives for disaster damage prevention, as well as for post-disaster reconstruction (Costanza et al., 2006; Day et al., 2007). Ecological restoration in general can bene t if both landscape ecological principles and ecological engineering measures are com- bined (Kuusemets and Mander, 1999; Simmons et al., 2007). Since economic development of the envir- onment is overwhelmingly dominant in many parts of the world, especially in places where living conditions are relatively convenient for human beings, such as riversides, large deltas and fluvial plains, by incorporating the distribution of potential disaster risk and damage levels into future land-use planning, direct serious losses from disastrous events can largely be prevented. Landscape ecology can do more in post- disaster rehabilitation with its holistic plann- ing principles and approaches. The reconcili- ation between the limitations of nature and human demands is often the solution in post- disaster planning strategies. Often, better land-use or residential arrangements can be achieved than in the pre-disaster situation, such as Tangshan after the 1976 earthquake and after the 1987 forest re in the Northern Great Hing'an Mountains of China (personal observation by Xiuzhen Li). 5 Natural resource management and bioprotection Although landscape ecology has already played an active role in providing theoretical and methodological ideas for natural resource management (Mullner et al., 2001; Saveraid et al., 2001; Szaro et al., 2005; Kangas et al., 2005) and wildlife habitat protection (Hinsley and Bellamy, 2000; Opdam and Wascher, 2004; Stephens et al., 2004; Cushman, 2006; Gorman et al., 2008), much more can still be done in this eld of research using newly de- veloped techniques. For example, remotely sensed data with increased spatial resolution and improved ground transmitter sensors can greatly help to track animals and strategic habitats over broad areas (Reynolds and Riley, 2002; Kerr and Ostrovsky, 2003; Fischer and Lindenmayer, 2007). The quality and quan- tity of natural habitats can also be measured more precisely. Spatial modelling and analysis with GIS is developing very rapidly and can provide more alternatives for efficient re- source management and bioconservation (Bocco et al., 2005; Pichancourt et al., 2006). It is also the presentation medium for convey- ing landscape-scale scienti c ndings to all kinds of audiences (Duncan and Lach, 2006). 6 Landscape genetics The integration of landscape ecology with population genetics has resulted in a new research eld – landscape genetics – which is the most rapidly growing branch of the research of landscape ecology (Figure 1). Landscape genetics will greatly help both fields in understanding the effect of land- scape heterogeneity on genetic flow and metapopulation dynamics (Manel et al., 2003; Holderegger and Wagner, 2006). The groundbreaking papers by Manel et al. (2003) and Guillot et al. (2005) principally showed new opportunities for the use of 40 molecular genetic methods and data to test hypotheses in the area of landscape ecology. This will bring new perspectives concerning the relationships between landscape pattern and organism evolution (Holderegger et al., 2006; Storfer et al., 2007; Vierling and Waits, 2007), as well as the whole biogeographical concept (Riddle et al., 2008). In particular, the combination of advanced GIS methods with molecular data on population dynamics will extend the frontiers of present knowledge (see Cushman et al., 2006; Epps et al., 2007; McRae and Beier, 2007). A series of pioneer- ing examples have been published in a special issue of Landscape Ecology (2006, volume 21, issue 6), such as how landscape features affect the distribution of genetic variation in colonies of prairie dogs (Antolin et al., 2006). Applications of landscape genetics also ap- pear in a landscape ecological analysis of marine ecosystems (Galindo et al., 2006). 7 Integration of visual landscapes and ecological landscapes The evaluation of the visual aesthetic quality of the landscape provides a new perspective for the landscape, in addition to its traditional ecological views, as well as pattern analysis from classi ed remotely sensed imagery. To date, pioneering studies have been performed with the help of plain photographs, at differ- ent scales and periods, in combination with remotely sensed imagery and aerial photos (Bishop and Hulse, 1994; Bell, 2001; Palmer and Hoffman, 2001; Arriaza et al., 2004; Clay and Smidt, 2004; Hernández et al., 2004; Dramstad et al., 2006; Sheppard and Picard, 2006; Rogge et al., 2007). Palmer (1997; 2004) was one of the first analysts of landscape metrics to predict scenic perception in a changing landscape. De la Fuente de Val et al. (2006) tested the relationship between land- scape visual quality and spatial pattern indices in Mediterranean landscapes. Sang et al. (2008) successfully used landscape metrics and visual topology in the analysis of landscape preference. Modern approaches use fractal geometry (Hagerhall et al., 2004), neural network technology (Mougiakakou et al., 2005) and 3-D computer modelling (Walz et al., 2008) for landscape visualization and perception analyses. Although landscape aesthetics, landscape perception and local identity have been stu- died for more than three decades (Figure 1; Appleton, 1975a; 1975b; Tuan, 1977; Kaplan, 1979; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Bishop and Hulse, 1994; Walz et al., 2008), the quanti- tative evaluation of the quality of a landscape remains a challenge because of the temporal dynamics of the landscape, the scale depend- ence of the view, 3-D difference, and differ- ences between observers' perception abilities. Seasonal and annual oscillations of climate directly in uence the greenery components of the landscape, which often constitutes the core of their aesthetic value (Daniel, 2001). Sometimes, the aesthetic and ecological functions of the landscape overlap, but in many cases they are controversial (Purcell and Lamb, 1998). Perceptions of the same landscape are different if viewed from a yard, a tall building, a helicopter, a space ight or a satellite, just like the difference viewed by an ant, a lion and an eagle. The scaling problem also appears when analysing landscape per- ception, not only by Homo sapiens but also by other organisms (With, 1994). Sensu Appleton's (1975a; 1975b) prospect/refuge theory and Kaplan's evolutionary approach (Kaplan, 1979; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989) sug- gesting that landscape preferences are re- lated to the adaptive need to make sense of the environment, perceptions and feelings would also be very different if the land- scape were to be viewed from different per- spectives. The feelings of viewers are even more complicated due to their different `taste' or preference in a landscape (Zube et al., 1982; Hull and Revell, 1989; Clay and Daniel, 2000). Therefore, much effort is needed in this eld of study, especially when landscape design and planning is focused on recreational purposes. New frontiers in `sound-scapes', `smell- scapes' and maybe even spatial `mind-scapes' 41 (eg, Metzger's presentation at the end of the 7th IALE World Congress held in July 2007 in Wageningen, the Netherlands; Metzger et al., 2007) may also be sought. In fact, this is a typical example of how something `new' is actually a long-forgotten earlier concept: even in the 1920s Finnish-Estonian geographer Johannes Gabriel Granö (1929; 1997) an- alysed and mapped landscapes using these categories. Moreover, similar ideas had al- ready appeared in earlier studies (Sauer, 1925). Several modern studies successfully follow this concept (Sevenant and Antrop, 2007; Meyer and Grabaum, 2008). Neverthe- less, both theoretical and applied landscape research will become richer if all of the aspects of landscape perception are considered. 8 The role of human beings in landscape evolution Humans have been interacting with his environment from the beginning of time, through the construction of buildings, roads and farms; the management of pastures and forests; and so on (see Marsh, 1864). Differ- ent types and intensities of human activities have resulted in the multidirections and inten- sities of ows, from population to materials and energy, between source and sink land- scapes (Forman and Godron, 1986). Since the pioneering International Symposium on Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth held in 1955 at Princeton University, and the subsequent two-volume set of papers pub- lished the next year (Thomas, 1956), studies on modern anthropogenic alterations of nature became leading research area in envir- onmental sciences. Nevertheless, landscape as the habitat of human beings, or Homo sapiens, is far less understood than the habitat of many wild animal species. It is also possible to study the suitability of human habitats in common with those of animals, from the four basic aspects: water, food, shelter and disturbance. The quantity and quality of water and food are heterogeneously distributed over time and space, and so are the spaces for shelters. Humans have much greater shelter needs than average animals: for example, housing, clothes, vehicles and factories (Peng et al., 2008). Natural disasters are disturbances that humans face of different types, frequ- encies, severity and distribution. Human- created hazards are, however, also enormous, such as landslides due to mining or quarrying, and desertification due to overgrazing (Li et al., 2000). If these factors are combined and classi ed into suitability grades, human habitats can be further analysed. To ensure a healthy habitat for human beings, a new relationship between human activity and nature must be established (Naveh, 2007). For example, our fossil fuel dependent economy should gradually be replaced with a more hydrogen energy, solar energy, wind and hydroelectric energy based economy. Renewable resources and recycl- able resources should be used with non- pollution production and consumption. The general idea is to work with nature and not against it. Understanding the ecological con- sequences of human activities on landscapes will ensure a healthy coevolution between humans and the landscape. These ideas closely coincide with the main principles of ecological engineering, which is dedicated to designing societal services such that they bene t both society and nature (Mitsch and Jørgensen, 2004). Self-organizational prop- erties are a central feature of ecological en- gineering (Odum, 1989), ie, ecological engin- eering is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems (Mitsch and Jørgensen, 2004). As `ecology at human scale' and a trans- disciplinary science, landscape ecology should continue to serve as the `decision support system' for the sustainable development of the human race. Throughout the world, land- scapes are being altered more rapidly, more extensively and more profoundly than at any point in human history (IALE mission state- ment). Landscape ecologists could, therefore, play a more active role in comprehensive land-use planning and sound land-use policy in the future. 42 A groundbreaking attempt to combine natural and economic factors in the same area has been undertaken by Costanza et al. (2002), who developed a spatially explicit, process- based model of the 2352-km2 Patuxent River watershed in Maryland. The model addressed the effects of both the magnitude and spatial patterns of human settlements and agricul- tural practices on hydrology, plant producti- vity and nutrient cycling in the landscape. This is one of the rst models in which economic and natural phenomena are presented in a spatially explicit form. Such broad-scale, spa- tially explicit models highlight the complex nature of landscape responses. On the basis of this example, several similar models have been developed (Verburg et al., 2006). These new models seek to balance the simplicity of general models and the complexity of more realistic spatial models. However, the eld covered by landscape ecology has become so heterogeneous (from genetics and environmental psychology to biogeochemistry and ecological engineering) that it remains a challenge whether to keep it under one umbrella or divide it into inde- pendent sciences. Several papers have sought to show ways in which the natural science based and social science based parts could be integrated (Bastian, 2001; Tress et al., 2005; Farina and Belgrano, 2006; Nassauer and Opdam, 2008), yet the future will show how successful this will be. VI Conclusions Like all branches of science, landscape eco- logy is, by nature, dynamic. It was named by Troll (1939) and integrated from different disciplines of geography and biology in the 1970s–1980s (Zonneveld, 1972; Naveh and Lieberman, 1984; Forman and Godron, 1986) . It has grown into a rapidly developing inter- disciplinary science. Landscape ecological research is now challenged by a divergence into two major directions: natural/ecological and human/social-economic branches, and some of the new research directions, such as landscape genetics, demonstrate very rapid growth. In this continuing process of conver- gence and divergence, a new explanation and integration at a higher level of knowledge is needed. 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<fpage>1</fpage>-<lpage>33</lpage>.</citation></ref></ref-list></back></article></istex:document></istex:metadataXml><mods version="3.6"><titleInfo lang="en"><title>Future options in landscape ecology: development and research</title></titleInfo><titleInfo type="alternative" lang="en" contentType="CDATA"><title>Future options in landscape ecology: development and research</title></titleInfo><name type="personal"><namePart type="family">Xiuzhen Li</namePart><affiliation>State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China</affiliation></name><name type="personal"><namePart type="given">Ülo</namePart><namePart type="family">Mander</namePart><affiliation>Department of Geography, University of Tartu, 46 Vanemuise St. Tartu, 51014, Estonia,</affiliation><affiliation>E-mail: ulo.mander@ut.ee</affiliation></name><typeOfResource>text</typeOfResource><genre type="research-article" displayLabel="research-article"></genre><originInfo><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><place><placeTerm type="text">Sage UK: London, England</placeTerm></place><dateIssued encoding="w3cdtf">2009-02</dateIssued><copyrightDate encoding="w3cdtf">2009</copyrightDate></originInfo><language><languageTerm type="code" authority="iso639-2b">eng</languageTerm><languageTerm type="code" authority="rfc3066">en</languageTerm></language><physicalDescription><internetMediaType>text/html</internetMediaType></physicalDescription><abstract lang="en">The aim of this brief overview is to highlight some new and promising research fields in landscape ecology, which is essentially an interdisciplinary field of study. We also analyse the development of some classical branches of landscape ecology regarding pattern and process relationships at broad spatial and temporal scales, such as landscape metrics, the influence of anthropogenic factors and global climate change on landscape development, the fragmentation of ecosystems and disturbances of populations, and material and energy cycling in and between ecosystems.</abstract><subject><genre>keywords</genre><topic>global change</topic><topic>landscape aesthetics</topic><topic>landscape genetics</topic><topic>landscape perception</topic><topic>landscape planning</topic><topic>marine space ecology</topic><topic>natural disasters</topic><topic>seascape.</topic></subject><relatedItem type="host"><titleInfo><title>Progress in Physical Geography</title></titleInfo><genre type="journal">journal</genre><identifier type="ISSN">0309-1333</identifier><identifier type="eISSN">1477-0296</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID">PPG</identifier><identifier type="PublisherID-hwp">spppg</identifier><part><date>2009</date><detail type="volume"><caption>vol.</caption><number>33</number></detail><detail type="issue"><caption>no.</caption><number>1</number></detail><extent unit="pages"><start>31</start><end>48</end></extent></part></relatedItem><identifier type="istex">6E10ADDB1908DFC6B0971047EDD5FFF3BD54E2FD</identifier><identifier type="DOI">10.1177/0309133309103888</identifier><identifier type="ArticleID">10.1177_0309133309103888</identifier><recordInfo><recordContentSource>SAGE</recordContentSource></recordInfo></mods></metadata><serie></serie></istex></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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