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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Methanol contamination in traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages: the microbial dimension</title><author><name sortKey="Ohimain, Elijah Ige" sort="Ohimain, Elijah Ige" uniqKey="Ohimain E" first="Elijah Ige" last="Ohimain">Elijah Ige Ohimain</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Ecotoxicology Research Group, Biological Sciences Department, Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State Nigeria</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">27652180</idno><idno type="pmc">5028366</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5028366</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:5028366</idno><idno type="doi">10.1186/s40064-016-3303-1</idno><date when="2016">2016</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000725</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Methanol contamination in traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages: the microbial dimension</title><author><name sortKey="Ohimain, Elijah Ige" sort="Ohimain, Elijah Ige" uniqKey="Ohimain E" first="Elijah Ige" last="Ohimain">Elijah Ige Ohimain</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Ecotoxicology Research Group, Biological Sciences Department, Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State Nigeria</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">SpringerPlus</title><idno type="eISSN">2193-1801</idno><imprint><date when="2016">2016</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Incidence of methanol contamination of traditionally fermented beverages is increasing globally resulting in the death of several persons. The source of methanol contamination has not been clearly established in most countries. While there were speculations that unscrupulous vendors might have deliberately spiked the beverages with methanol, it is more likely that the methanol might have been produced by contaminating microbes during traditional ethanol fermentation, which is often inoculated spontaneously by mixed microbes, with a potential to produce mixed alcohols. Methanol production in traditionally fermented beverages can be linked to the activities of pectinase producing yeast, fungi and bacteria. This study assessed some traditional fermented beverages and found that some beverages are prone to methanol contamination including cachaca, cholai, agave, arak, plum and grape wines. Possible microbial role in the production of methanol and other volatile congeners in these fermented beverages were discussed. The study concluded by suggesting that contaminated alcoholic beverages be converted for fuel use rather than out rightly banning the age—long traditional alcohol fermentation.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Aiyeloja, Aa" uniqKey="Aiyeloja A">AA Aiyeloja</name></author><author><name sortKey="Oladele, At" uniqKey="Oladele A">AT Oladele</name></author><author><name sortKey="Tumulo, A" uniqKey="Tumulo A">A Tumulo</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Aka, S" uniqKey="Aka S">S Aka</name></author><author><name sortKey="Camara, F" uniqKey="Camara F">F Camara</name></author><author><name sortKey="Nanga, Yz" uniqKey="Nanga Y">YZ Nanga</name></author><author><name sortKey="Loukou, Yg" uniqKey="Loukou Y">YG Loukou</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dje, Km" uniqKey="Dje K">KM Dje</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Amaral, Shd" 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Springerplus</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Springerplus</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>SpringerPlus</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">2193-1801</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Springer International Publishing</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Cham</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">27652180</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">5028366</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">3303</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s40064-016-3303-1</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Review</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Methanol contamination in traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages: the microbial dimension</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name><surname>Ohimain</surname><given-names>Elijah Ige</given-names></name><address><email>eohimain@yahoo.com</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><aff id="Aff1">Ecotoxicology Research Group, Biological Sciences Department, Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State Nigeria</aff></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>20</day><month>9</month><year>2016</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>20</day><month>9</month><year>2016</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2016</year></pub-date><volume>5</volume><pmc-comment>[[SPORTSMEDO NO ISSUE!]]</pmc-comment>
<issue>1</issue><elocation-id>1607</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>19</day><month>4</month><year>2016</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>11</day><month>9</month><year>2016</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© The Author(s) 2016</copyright-statement><license license-type="OpenAccess"><license-p><bold>Open Access</bold>This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract id="Abs1"><p>Incidence of methanol contamination of traditionally fermented beverages is increasing globally resulting in the death of several persons. The source of methanol contamination has not been clearly established in most countries. While there were speculations that unscrupulous vendors might have deliberately spiked the beverages with methanol, it is more likely that the methanol might have been produced by contaminating microbes during traditional ethanol fermentation, which is often inoculated spontaneously by mixed microbes, with a potential to produce mixed alcohols. Methanol production in traditionally fermented beverages can be linked to the activities of pectinase producing yeast, fungi and bacteria. This study assessed some traditional fermented beverages and found that some beverages are prone to methanol contamination including cachaca, cholai, agave, arak, plum and grape wines. Possible microbial role in the production of methanol and other volatile congeners in these fermented beverages were discussed. The study concluded by suggesting that contaminated alcoholic beverages be converted for fuel use rather than out rightly banning the age—long traditional alcohol fermentation.</p></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Traditional fermentation</kwd><kwd>Indigenous fermentation</kwd><kwd>Pectin</kwd><kwd>Pectin methyl esterase</kwd><kwd>Toxic ethanol</kwd><kwd>Methanol</kwd><kwd>Volatile congeners</kwd><kwd>Raffia palm</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>issue-copyright-statement</meta-name><meta-value>© The Author(s) 2016</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="Sec1" sec-type="introduction"><title>Background</title><p>Beverage ethanol production via fermentation is an age long tradition in many parts of the world. In the tropical world and elsewhere, indigenous people are involved in the entire value chain of traditional alcohol fermentation. Jespersen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>) reported that most beverages and foods in Africa are produced at household level or on small industrial scale often of varying qualities. Aiyeloga et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">2014</xref>) reported the potentials of raffia palm wine in sustaining livelihood in rural and urban populations in Nigeria. However, in Africa, Asia and South America, there has been an increasing incidence of methanol contamination in traditionally fermented alcoholic drinks (WHO <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR71">2014</xref>). Several cases of methanol poisoning have been reported in India and elsewhere. For instance in 2008, over 180 persons were killed in Bangalore and in 2009, 138 were killed in Gujarat, India. In 2015, 27 persons died in India after consuming toxic ethanol. In 2009, 25 persons died in Indonesia after consuming fermented palm wine containing methanol. About 130 persons died in some India villages in 2011 linked to poisonous ethanol consumption. In Czech Republic, 127 persons were poisoned from contaminated alcohol, out of which 42 died (Vaskova <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR70">2013</xref>). In 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) alerted that there have been increasing outbreaks of methanol poisoning in several countries including Kenya, Gambia, Libya, Uganda, India, Ecuador, Indonesia, Nicaragina, Pakistan, Turkey, Czech Republic, Estonia and Norway. The size of these outbreaks ranged from 20 to over 800 victims, with case fatality rates of over 30 % in some cases (WHO <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR71">2014</xref>). Lachenmeier et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">2011</xref>) evaluated the risk of contaminated unregulated alcohol in the European Union.</p><p>In Nigeria, between April and June 2015, a total of 89 persons died following the consumption of locally produced ethanol beverage called kaikai/ogogoro/apeteshi or illicit gin. Kaikai is produced mostly from the sap of raffia palm and oil palm and to a lesser extent from other palms such as date palm, nipa palm etc. Laboratory analysis carried out by WHO and NAFDAC (National Agency for Food, Drug Administration and Control) show that the beverage contain 16.3 % methanol, while the blood methanol concentration of victims was found to be 1500–2000 mg/l. Victims exhibited symptoms of methanol poisoning including loss of consciousness, dizziness, weakness and breathing difficulties, blurred vision and blindness, weight loss, headache, abdominal pains, nausea, diarrhea and vomiting (Methanol Institute <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">2013</xref>). WHO (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR71">2014</xref>) reported that blood methanol concentration above 500 mg/l is associated with severe toxicity, whereas concentration above 1500–2000 mg/l causes death in untreated victims. While investigation is ongoing on the source/origin of methanol in the beverage, the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) placed a ban on the production, sale, distribution and consumption of locally fermented beverage in Nigeria. Enforcement of the ban was heightened in the months (June–August 2015) following the incidence, but as of the time of writing (November 2015) enforcement has slacked. But the ban on the age long fermentation processes could have major impacts on the local economy. For instance, over 50 million people consume palm wine in Southern Nigeria (Obahiagbon <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">2009</xref>).</p><p>Raffia palm, which is among the most diverse and geographically widespread palm, is found in Africa, Asia and South America (Oduah and Ohimain <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR44">2015</xref>). The palm has many potential uses (Oduah and Ohimain <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR44">2015</xref>) but it is currently undertilized (Ohimain et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR48">2015</xref>). Production of beverage ethanol from raffia palm provide a source of employment especially for rural people (Obahiagbon and Osagie <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR43">2007</xref>; Ohimain et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR47">2012</xref>). Aiyeloja et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">2014</xref>) studied the potential of raffia palm in the sustenance of rural and urban population in Nigeria. They found that raffia palm beverage value chain provides profit of ₦50,000–₦90,000 ($ 1 = ₦220) to producers and ₦45,000–₦70,000 to marketers. The complete ban on traditionally fermented beverages could be detrimental to the country’s economy especially at a time when most economics are under recession, with high inflation and un-employment rates. Nigeria is currently experiencing an economic downturn due to low crude oil prices. Hence, there is the need to establish the source/cause of methanol in traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages. Methanol Institute (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">2013</xref>) reported that methanol is often deliberately added to alcoholic beverages by unscrupulous and illegal criminal enterprises as a cheaper alternative to the production of cheaper ethanol. This may be unlikely in Nigeria and many other developing countries where methanol is not domestically produced but imported at costs higher than the cost of alcoholic beverage. For instance, domestically produced ethanol (40–60 % alcohol content) is quite cheap costing ₦20 per shot of 30 ml i.e. ₦670/l as against ₦5168/l of 99.85 % methanol (excluding importation and duty costs). Hence, there is need for research to focus on other possible sources of methanol in locally fermented beverages. WHO (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR71">2014</xref>) reported that outbreaks of methanol often occur when methanol is added to alcoholic beverages. Ohimain et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR47">2012</xref>) reported that alcoholic beverages are produced in Nigeria using rudimentary equipment under spontaneous fermentation, which lacked effective controls and are carried out by uneducated rural workers with poor hygiene in an unsterile environment. Traditional fermentation is carried out by mixed cultures consisting of yeast, other fungi and bacteria. Though, most of the traditionally fermented food and beverages are dominated by the yeast <italic>Saccharomyces cerevisiae,</italic> and to a lesser extent <italic>Lactobacillus</italic> (Jespersen <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>; Ogbulie et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR46">2007</xref>; Karamoko et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">2012</xref>; Rokosu and Nwisienyi <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR58">1980</xref>), the presence of other microbes can lead to the production of diverse products including methanol (Dato et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">2005</xref>; Shale et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR61">2013</xref>; Kostik et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>). Several compounds could be produced during mixed fermentation with several organisms. Also, it has been severally reported that microbial fermentation of substrates rich in pectin can result in the formation of methanol (Nakagawa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">2000</xref>; Mendonca et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">2011</xref>; Siragusa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">1988</xref>). Contaminating yeast has been demonstrated to produce methanol during traditional fermentation (Dato et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">2005</xref>). Recent studies have also shown that the ethanol fermenting yeast, <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> has several strains with slightly different metabolism (Jespersen <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>; Stringini et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR67">2009</xref>; Okunowo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">2005</xref>) with some strains possibly producing methanol. More worrisome are recent studies showing increase in blood methanol level in some persons even after consumption of methanol-free ethanol (Shindyapina et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR63">2014</xref>; Dorokhov et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">2015</xref>). These authors recognized two sources of methanol in human systems, endogenous and exogenous sources. It is generally believed that unscrupulous vendors deliberately spike beverages with methanol in order to increase the alcohol content. The aim of this review is to present alternative viewpoint showing the possible role of microbes in the production of methanol in traditionally fermented beverages. We reviewed literatures on traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages, assessed the methanol content of the beverages, the pectin content of their feedstocks and the microbial species involved in the fermentation in an attempt to establish a possible role of microbes in the production of methanol in traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages.</p></sec><sec id="Sec2"><title>Methanol contamination in fermented beverages</title><p>The result of the review is presented in Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>, showing that several traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages in different countries could be prone to methanol contamination. Majority of the beverages are made from few feedstocks including palm wine, sorghum, millet, maize, sugarcane, citrus, banana, milk and Plum. Cases of methanol contamination have been reported in some of the wines produced from banana, plum and Agrave. Spirits made from mangoes, pears, banana and melon have been shown to contain methanol (Mendonca et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">2011</xref>). In Rwanda, traces of methanol were reported in Urwagwa, a beer produced from banana (Shale et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR61">2013</xref>). Mendonca et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">2011</xref>) reported 0.05–0.189 % methanol in cachaca produced from banana pulp, while Dato et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">2005</xref>) reported 0.00–0.50 % methanol in cachaica produced from sugarcane in Brazil. Plum wine (Joshi et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">2009</xref>; Jung et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">2010</xref>), plum brandy (Kostik et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>), agave (Leon-Rodriguez et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>) contain methanol. The substrate for ethanol production is the first probable source of methanol in the beverage. Chaiyasut et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>) reported factors affecting the methanol production in fermented beverages including raw material size and age, sterilization temperature, pectin content and pectin methyl esterase (PME) activity (Note that PME activity is optimal at 50–60 °C).<table-wrap id="Tab1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages prone to methanol contamination</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left">Beverage</th><th align="left">Feedstock</th><th align="left">Fermenting organism</th><th align="left">Countries</th><th align="left">Alcohol content</th><th align="left">References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Palm wine</td><td align="left">silver date palm (<italic>Phoenix sylvestris</italic>), the palmyra, jaggery palm (<italic>Caryota urens</italic>), oil palm (<italic>Elaeis guineense</italic>) <italic>Raffia palms</italic>, <italic>kithul</italic> palms, or <italic>nipa</italic> palms. coconut palms <italic>Borassus</italic></td><td align="left">Yeast (<italic>Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces ludwigii</italic>, <italic>Candida parapsilosis, Candida fermentati, Pichia fermentans, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Schizosaccharomyces bailli, Kluvyeromyces africanus, Hansenula auvarum, Kloeckera apiculata, Torulaspora delbrueckii</italic>) & Lactic Acid Bacteria (<italic>Lactobacillus</italic>, <italic>Leuconostoc</italic>, <italic>Pediococcus</italic>, <italic>Lactococcus</italic>, and <italic>Streptococcus</italic>), acetic acid bacteria (<italic>Acetobacter, Aerobacter</italic>)</td><td align="left">Most African and Asian countries</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Ogbulie et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR46">2007</xref>), Rokosu and Nwisienyi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR58">1980</xref>) and Karamoko et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">2012</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Local gin (ogogoro, kaikai, apetesi)</td><td align="left">Palm wine</td><td align="left">(<italic>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</italic>) & bacteria (<italic>Lactobacillus</italic>)</td><td align="left">Most African and Asian countries</td><td align="left">40–60 % Ethanol</td><td align="left">Ohimain et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR47">2012</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Pito (local beer)</td><td align="left">Sorghum or maize</td><td align="left">Bacteria (<italic>Pediococcus halophilus, Lactobacillus</italic>) & yeast (<italic>Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida tropicalis, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluvyeromyces africanus, Hansenula anomala, Kloeckera apiculata, Torulaspora delbrueckii</italic>)</td><td align="left">West Africa</td><td align="left">2–3 % Ethanol</td><td align="left">Orji et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">2003</xref>), Sefa-Dedeh et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR60">1999</xref>) and Iwuoha and Eke (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">1996</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Burukutu</td><td align="left">Sorghum</td><td align="left"><italic>Sacharomyces cerevisiae, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Aspegillus, Fusarium, Penicillium</italic></td><td align="left">Nigeria, Ghana</td><td align="left">1.63 % ethanol</td><td align="left">Eze et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">2011</xref>) and Iwuoha and Eke (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">1996</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Tchapalo (sorghum beer)</td><td align="left">Sorghum</td><td align="left">Lactic acid bacteria</td><td align="left">Cote d’Ivoire</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Aka et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR2">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Tchapalo (sorghum beer)</td><td align="left">Sorghum</td><td align="left">Lactic acid bacteria (several species)</td><td align="left">Cote d’Ivoire</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Koffi-Marcellin et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">2009</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Bushera</td><td align="left">Sorghum</td><td align="left">Lactic acid bacteria (several species)</td><td align="left">Uganda</td><td align="left">0.20–0.75 % ethanol</td><td align="left">Muyanja et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">2003</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Ogi</td><td align="left">Maize, sorghum or millet</td><td align="left"><italic>Sacharomyces cerevisiae, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptococcus lactis</italic></td><td align="left">Nigeria</td><td align="left">?</td><td align="left">Iwuoha and Eke (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">1996</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Urwagwa (banana beer)</td><td align="left">Banana</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Rwanda</td><td align="left">8.7–18 (ethanol), trace (methanol)</td><td align="left">Shale et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR61">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Cachaca (banana pulp wine)</td><td align="left">Banana</td><td align="left"><italic>Sacharomyces cerevisiae</italic></td><td align="left">Brazil</td><td align="left">Ethanol (5.34–7.84 %), methanol (0.65–0.189 %)</td><td align="left">Mendonca et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">2011</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Cachaca</td><td align="left">Sugarcane</td><td align="left"><italic>Sacharomyces cerevisiae</italic> and wild yeasts (<italic>Pichia</italic> sp & <italic>Dekkera bruxelensis</italic>)</td><td align="left">Brazil</td><td align="left">Methanol (0–0.5 %)</td><td align="left">Dato et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">2005</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Noni</td><td align="left">Morinda trifolia</td><td align="left"><italic>Lactobacillus plantarum & L. casei</italic></td><td align="left">Thailand</td><td align="left">853 mg/l methanol</td><td align="left">Chaiyasut et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Kwunu-zaki</td><td align="left">Millet</td><td align="left"><italic>Sacharomyces cerevisiae</italic></td><td align="left">Nigeria</td><td align="left">?</td><td align="left">Iwuoha and Eke (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">1996</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Cocoa sap wine</td><td align="left">Cocoa sap</td><td align="left"><italic>Sacharomyces cerevisiae</italic></td><td align="left">Nigeria</td><td align="left">?</td><td align="left">Iwuoha and Eke (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">1996</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Cholai</td><td align="left">rice, sugar-cane, juice of date tree, molasses, and fruit juice (pineapple and jackfruits)</td><td align="left"><italic>Sacharomyces cerevisiae</italic></td><td align="left">India</td><td align="left">14.5 % alcohol</td><td align="left">Islam et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR20">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Dengue</td><td align="left">Millet</td><td align="left">Lactic acid bacteria (several species)</td><td align="left">Burkina Faso</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Quattara et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">2015</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Yoghurt</td><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">Lactic acid bacteria (several species)</td><td align="left">Iran</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Azadnia and Khan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">2009</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Gariss</td><td align="left">Milk</td><td align="left">Lactic acid bacteria (several species)</td><td align="left">Sudan</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Ashmaig et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">2009</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Kwete</td><td align="left">Maize & millet</td><td align="left">Lactic acid bacteria</td><td align="left">Uganda</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Namuguraya and Muyanja (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">2009</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Agave</td><td align="left">Agave</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Mexico</td><td align="left">3.9–339 g/l (ethanol), ND-1826 mg/l (methanol)</td><td align="left">Leon-Rodriguez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Plum wine</td><td align="left">Plum</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Romania</td><td align="left">53–76 % (ethanol), 554–4170 mg/l (ethanol)</td><td align="left">Jung et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">2010</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Plum brandy</td><td align="left">Plum</td><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Macedonia</td><td align="left">47–51 % (ethanol), 564–999 mg/l (methanol)</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Plum wine</td><td align="left">Japanese Plum (<italic>Prunus salicina</italic> Linn)</td><td align="left">Yeast</td><td align="left">India</td><td align="left">175 mg/l Methanol</td><td align="left">Joshi et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">2009</xref>)</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></p><p>Another possible source of methanol in traditionally fermented alcoholic beverage is the fermenting microbes. The ethanol fermenting yeast <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> dominated traditional fermentation followed by <italic>Lactobacillus</italic> (Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>). Jespersen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>) also observed this trend in African indigenous fermented beverages and foods. <italic>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</italic> have been used as catalysts for the production of ethanol for thousands of years. But recent studies have shown that there are different strains of <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> involved in traditional ethanol fermentation (Hayford and Jespersen <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">1999</xref>; Jespersen <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>; Kuhle et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">2001</xref>; Pataro et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR55">2000</xref>; Guerra et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">2001</xref>; Ezeronye and Legras <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR12">2009</xref>). The big question is ‘have the traditional ethanol producing yeast evolved into the production of methanol in addition’? Professor Benito Santiago, University of Spain (Personal communication, July 2015) opined that some years ago, methanol at low concentration was desirable in beer and wines. However, we were unable to find literature confirming this claim.</p><p>Pectins are a group of heterogeneous polysaccharides found in the intercellular regions and cell walls of most fruits and vegetables (Siragusa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">1988</xref>), with its greatest abundance in citrus particularly orange, grape, limes and lemons (Siragusa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">1988</xref>). Citrus contains 7–10 % pectin (Siragusa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">1988</xref>). Chaiyasut et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>) compared pectin levels in fermented beverage containing <italic>Morinda citrifolia</italic> (9.89 %) with that of other fruits including guava (4.36 %), tomato (0.3 %), apple (0.5 %), carrot (0.8 %) and cherries (0.4 %). During ripening, pectin in fruits is broken down by PME resulting in the formation of methanol (Chaiyasut et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>; Micheli <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">2001</xref>). However, pectin has not been reported in palm wine.</p><p>Plant cell wall degrading enzymes including pectinases are ubiquitous among pathogenic and saprophytic bacteria and fungi (Prade et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR56">1999</xref>). Pectin enzymes are widely distributed in nature and are produced by yeast, bacteria, fungi and plants (Sieiro et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR64">2012</xref>). Methanol is a major end product of pectin metabolism by microorganisms (Schink and Zeikus <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR59">1980</xref>). Human colonic bacteria, <italic>Erwinia carotovora</italic> is able to degrade pectin releasing methanol (Siragusa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">1988</xref>). Anaerobic bacteria, particularly <italic>Clostridium butyricum</italic>, <italic>Clostridium thermocellum</italic>, <italic>Clostridium multifermentans</italic>, and <italic>Clostridium felsineum</italic> produce methanol from pectin (Ollivier and Garcia <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR51">1990</xref>). Schink and Zeikus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR59">1980</xref>) reported various pectinolytic strains of <italic>Clostridium</italic>, <italic>Erwinia</italic> and <italic>Pseudomonas</italic>. Dorokhov et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">2015</xref>) listed at least 20 species of human colonic microbes capable of producing methanol endogenously. The authors in a comprehensive review presented at least five different pathways of methanol synthesis in humans and four pathways of methanol clearance from the body and they also demonstrated the presence of gene regulation in methanol synthesis. Readers are advised to consult this literature for details on metabolic methanol in human systems.</p><p>Pectinolytic enzymes are classified into esterases and depolymerase (lyases and hydrolases). Hydrolysis of pectin by lyases produces oligo- or mono-galacturonate, while hydrolysis of pectin by esterases produces pectic acid and methanol (Sieiro et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR64">2012</xref>). Some authors have identified strains of <italic>Saccharomyces</italic> that produces the three types of pectinolytic enzymes namely pectin methyl esterase (PME, EC: 3.1.1.11), pectin lyase (PL), and polygalacturonase (PG) (Gainvors et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">1994a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">b</xref>; Naumov et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">2001</xref>). Fernandez-Gonzalez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR13">2005</xref>) genetically modified <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> strain having pectinolytic activity. Analysis of <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> among many traditional fermented beverages in Africa shows that they vary according to the location and types of substrates (Jespersen <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>). Strains of <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> having PME activity could produce methanol during fermentation.</p><p>Methanol is produced during fermentation by the hydrolysis of naturally occurring pectin in the wort (Nakagawa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">2000</xref>; Mendonca et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">2011</xref>). PME de-esterify pectin to low—methoxyl pectins resulting in the production of methanol (Chaiyasut et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>; Micheli <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">2001</xref>).</p><p>Jespersen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>) reported the roles of <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> in the traditional fermentation to include fermentation of carbohydrate to ethanol, production of aromatic and flavor compounds, stimulation of lactic acid bacteria and probiotic activities among others. <italic>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</italic> also inhibit the mycotoxin producing fungi and cause the degradation of poisonous cyanogenic glycosides and produces tissues degrading enzymes such as cellulose and pectinase. The volume of ethanol produced during fermentation is dependent on the strains of yeast used. For instance, the total alcohol (ethanol and methanol) produced from orange juice fermentation was 3.19 % w/v with <italic>S. cerevisiae var. ellipsoideus</italic> and 6.80 % w/v with <italic>S. carlsbergensis</italic> (Okunowo and Osuntoki <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR49">2007</xref>). During the production of sugarcane beverage called cachaca in Brazil, <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> produced no methanol while contaminating yeasts (<italic>Pichia silvicola</italic> and <italic>P. anomala</italic>) produced 0.5 % methanol (Dato et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">2005</xref>). Stringini et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR67">2009</xref>) studied yeast diversity during tapping and fermentation of oil palm wine from Cameroon and found <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic>, <italic>Saccharomyces ludwigii</italic>, <italic>Schizosaccharomyces bailli</italic>, <italic>Candida parapsilosis</italic>, <italic>Pichia fermentans</italic>, <italic>Hanseniaspora uvarum</italic> and <italic>Candida fermentati</italic> in addition to lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria. Literature abounds on the microbiology of traditionally fermented beverages. Karamoko et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">2012</xref>) isolated yeasts, mould and bacteria including <italic>Bacillus</italic>, <italic>Brevibacterium</italic>, <italic>Micrococcus</italic> and <italic>Escherichia coli</italic>. Rokusu and Nwisienyi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR58">1980</xref>) isolated lactic acid bacteria (<italic>Lactobacillus</italic>, <italic>Streptococcus</italic> and <italic>Leuconostoc</italic>) and Acetic acid bacteria (<italic>Acetobacter</italic> and <italic>Aerobacter</italic>). Stringini et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR67">2009</xref>) using molecular techniques reported the diversity of yeasts involved in palm wine fermentation including <italic>S. cerevisiae</italic> and other yeast such as <italic>Candida parapsilosis, C. fermentati</italic> and <italic>Pi</italic>c<italic>hia fermentans</italic>. Similarly, the microbiology of other traditionally fermented alcoholic beverages and foods have been well documented (Ogbadu et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR45">1997</xref>; Muyanja et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">2003</xref>; Namuguraya and Muyanja <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">2009</xref>; Quattara et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">2015</xref>; Koffi-Marcellin et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">2009</xref>; Ashmaig et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">2009</xref>; Eze et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">2011</xref>).</p><p>Since traditional fermentation occur via spontaneous inoculation from the substrate and processing equipment (Ohimain et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR47">2012</xref>; Jespersen <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>), hence mixed cultures usually carry out the fermentation. Therefore, contaminating microbes including other yeasts, fungi and bacteria could result in the production of several other products including methanol. And because methanol has a lower boiling point (65 °C) than ethanol (78 °C), it could be further concentrated in the beverage during distillation. Though, there are some disadvantages of mixed culture fermentation, the use of mixed culture in ethanol production will offer the advantage of production at low cost since a large range of substrates may be metabolized into ethanol. Moreover, the high cost associated with operations of process plants with pure cultures could be drastically minimized when mixed cultures are used.</p><p>As previously stated, mixed fermentation could result in the production of diverse products. Even pure culture fermentation can result in the production of diverse products depending on the operating conditions. Hence, beverages produced via spontaneous fermentation by mixed culture could produce greater variety of products. Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref> listed some volatile congeners produced in selected alcoholic beverages beside methanol. Some of these compounds are also very poisonous e.g. ethyl carbamate and some are even carcinogenic (Lachenmeier et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">2009</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">2011</xref>; Testino et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR69">2014</xref>; Testino and Borro <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR68">2010</xref>). Annan et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">2003</xref>) listed 64 volatile compounds produced during the mixed culture fermentation of Ghanaian maize dough consisting of 20 alcohols, 22 carbonyls, 11 esters, 7 acids, 3 phenolic compounds and a furan.<table-wrap id="Tab2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Some volatile congeners in alcoholic beverages</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left">Congener</th><th align="left">Concentration</th><th align="left">Beverages</th><th align="left">References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5">1-butanol</td><td align="left">ND to 35 mg/l</td><td align="left">Agrave</td><td align="left">Leon-Rodriquez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">8 to 74 mg/l</td><td align="left">Plum wine</td><td align="left">Jung et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">2010</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">4.5 to 12 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Plum brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.0 to 5.2 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Grape brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">ND to 9.8 mg/l</td><td align="left">Raki</td><td align="left">Gueven (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5">2-butanol</td><td align="left">ND to 59 mg/l</td><td align="left">Agrave</td><td align="left">Leon-Rodriquez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">309 to 1092 mg/l</td><td align="left">Plum wine</td><td align="left">Jung et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">2010</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">14.5 to 55 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Plum brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.5 to 110.5 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Grape brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">ND to 18.39 mg/l</td><td align="left">Raki</td><td align="left">Gueven (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5">1-propanol</td><td align="left">ND to 708 mg/l</td><td align="left">Agrave</td><td align="left">Leon-Rodriquez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">76 to 1141 mg/l</td><td align="left">Plum wine</td><td align="left">Jung et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">2010</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">22 to 305 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Plum brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">4.1 to 90.5 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Grape brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">ND to 727 mg/l</td><td align="left">Raki</td><td align="left">Gueven (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2">2-propanol</td><td align="left">12.2 to 26.5 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Plum brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">7 to 26.5 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Grape brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Acetic acid</td><td align="left">ND to 1192 mg/l</td><td align="left">Agrave</td><td align="left">Leon-Rodriquez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Acetone</td><td align="left">25 to 40 mg/l</td><td align="left">Plum wine</td><td align="left">Jung et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">2010</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Aldehyde</td><td align="left">ND to 67.3 mg/l</td><td align="left">Raki</td><td align="left">Gueven (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5">Ethyl acetate</td><td align="left">ND to 30.19 mg/l</td><td align="left">Wines and spirits</td><td align="left">Osobamiro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">100 to 474 mg/l</td><td align="left">Agrave</td><td align="left">Leon-Rodriquez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">48 to 454 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Plum brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">5.2 to 255 mg/100 ml</td><td align="left">Grape brandy</td><td align="left">Kostik et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">12.8 to 292 mg/l</td><td align="left">Raki</td><td align="left">Gueven (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Ethyl carbamate</td><td align="left">378 to 421 µg/kg</td><td align="left">Yellow rice wine</td><td align="left">Wu et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR72">2014</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">ND to 40.65 mg/l</td><td align="left">Wines and spirits</td><td align="left">Osobamiro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left"><0.15 mg/l</td><td align="left">Agrave</td><td align="left">Lachenmeier et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">2009</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2">Higher alcohol<sup>a</sup></td><td align="left">267 to 2007 mg/l</td><td align="left">Agrave</td><td align="left">Leon-Rodriquez et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">ND to 2275 mg/l</td><td align="left">Raki</td><td align="left">Gueven (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2013</xref>)</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p><sup>a</sup>Higher alcohol are alcohols with molecular weight higher than ethanol i.e. alcohol that has more than 2 carbon; <italic>ND</italic> not detected</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec3"><title>Recommendations and the way forward</title><p>Paine and Davan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR54">2001</xref>) reported that low concentrations of methanol occur naturally in most alcoholic beverages without causing any harm. According to WHO (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR71">2014</xref>), methanol concentration of 6–27 mg/l in beer and 10–220 mg/l in spirits are not harmful. Paine and Davan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR54">2001</xref>) reported that the daily safe dose of methanol in an adult is 2 g and a toxic dose of 8 g as against the EU general limit for naturally occurring methanol of 10 g methanol/ethanol, which is equivalent to 0.4 % (v/v) methanol at 40 % ethanol. Czech Republic permitted safe limit for methanol in spirits is 12 g/l of pure ethanol (Vaskova <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR70">2013</xref>). Note that EU Methanol limit is variable (0.2–1.5 %) depending on the type of beverage and feedstock used for fermentation. Some countries have regulatory limits of methanol in alcoholic beverages (Table <xref rid="Tab3" ref-type="table">3</xref>). This regulatory control should be encouraged rather than outright ban.<table-wrap id="Tab3"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Regulatory limits of methanol in beverages</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left">Country</th><th align="left">Maximum methanol value<sup>a</sup></th><th align="left">Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Brazil</td><td align="left">0.5 % (0.5 ml/100 ml)</td><td align="left">Mendonca et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">2011</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Thailand</td><td align="left">0.024 % (240 mg/l)</td><td align="left">Chaiyasut et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Australia/New Zealand</td><td align="left">0.8 % (8 g/l)</td><td align="left">Chaiyasut et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">EU<sup>b</sup></td><td align="left">200 g/hl (0.2 % for wine & brandy, 1000 g/hl (1 %) for grape marc spirit and fruit spirit, 1500 g/hl (1.5 %) for fruit marc spirit</td><td align="left">European Community (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR10">2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">USA</td><td align="left">0.1 %</td><td align="left">FDA (Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act 21 USC 34 (a)(2)(C)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Vietnam</td><td align="left">0.3 %</td><td align="left">Socialist Republic of Vietnam (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR66">2010</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Nigeria</td><td align="left">0.0005 % (5 mg/l)</td><td align="left">NAFDAC (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR37">2005</xref>)</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p><sup>a</sup>Concentration of methanol in ethanol</p><p><sup>b</sup>EU limits for methanol in alcoholic beverages is variable depending on the type of beverage and the feedstock used for fermentation</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>Microbiological control of the process could also be used to prevent methanol formation in fermented beverages. For instance, pure culture inoculation using commercial yeast as opposed to spontaneous inoculation by wild yeasts should be practiced. The traditional fermentation processes could also be scaled-up using well characterized and purified starter culture. For instance, starter cultures have been successfully used to produce pito, a traditionally fermented alcoholic beverage produced from maize or sorghum (Orji et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">2003</xref>). Adequate equipment with process controls should be used for fermentation and distillation as opposed to rudimentary equipment lacking controls, which are currently used. For instance, sterilization/boiling at temperatures higher than 80 °C could prevent the production of methanol (Chaiyasut et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2013</xref>; Amaral et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">2005</xref>). Moreover, standard microbiological process controls and working under aseptic conditions could control contaminating wild yeasts in the fermentation process. Jespersen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2003</xref>) also recommended improved process control of fermentation and product characterization including the use of purified starter cultures with appropriate technology.</p><p>Another microbiological method for the control of methanol in fermented beverages, is the use of methylotrophic yeast such as <italic>Pichia methanolica</italic> (Nakagawa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">2005</xref>) and <italic>Candida boidinii</italic> (Nakagawa et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">2000</xref>) which have the capacity of utilizing pectin or methyl ester moiety of pectin and methanol, thus preventing the accumulation of methanol in fermented products. Finally, instead of an outright ban on traditional fermentation, because of methanol contamination, the mixed alcohol (ethanol and methanol) could be further processed and used as biofuel. Literature abounds on the use of methanol and ethanol as biofuels (Kamboj and Karimi <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR25">2014</xref>; Iliev <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">2015</xref>; Shayan et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR62">2011</xref>).</p></sec><sec id="Sec4" sec-type="conclusion"><title>Conclusions</title><p>Incidences of methanol contamination in traditional beverages are increasing globally and have caused death in many counties including Nigeria, India and Indonesia. It is generally believed that unscrupulous vendors deliberately spike the beverages with methanol in order to increase the alcohol content. This review observed that methanol production in traditional fermented beverages can be linked to the activities of pectinase producing yeast, fungi and bacteria. Microbes producing pectin methyl esterase are able to produce methanol from fruits/juices containing pectin. Under traditional/informal fermentation, alcoholic beverages produced by mixed microbial consortium could probably lead to the production of mixed alcohols containing methanol and other volatile congeners. The study concluded by suggesting that contaminated alcoholic beverages be converted for fuel use rather than out rightly banning the age—long traditional alcohol fermentation. Regulatory limits for methanol in fermented beverages should be strictly enforced. It is also suggested that pure cultures should be used for alcohol fermentation under aseptic conditions as opposed to spontaneous fermentation by mixed contaminating microbes.</p></sec></body><back><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>The author wishes to thank Mr. Sylvester Izah of the Niger Delta University for the editorial work, the anonymous reviewers and editors for their useful comments and suggestions and the management of Springerplus for waiving the article processing fees.</p><sec id="d30e1950"><title>Authors’ contributions</title><p>EIO carried out the entire work including liteture review and report writing. 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