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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plant species used by communities around Mabira Central Forest Reserve, Uganda</title><author><name sortKey="Tugume, Patience" sort="Tugume, Patience" uniqKey="Tugume P" first="Patience" last="Tugume">Patience Tugume</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kakudidi, Esezah K" sort="Kakudidi, Esezah K" uniqKey="Kakudidi E" first="Esezah K." last="Kakudidi">Esezah K. Kakudidi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Buyinza, Mukadasi" sort="Buyinza, Mukadasi" uniqKey="Buyinza M" first="Mukadasi" last="Buyinza">Mukadasi Buyinza</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Namaalwa, Justine" sort="Namaalwa, Justine" uniqKey="Namaalwa J" first="Justine" last="Namaalwa">Justine Namaalwa</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kamatenesi, Maud" sort="Kamatenesi, Maud" uniqKey="Kamatenesi M" first="Maud" last="Kamatenesi">Maud Kamatenesi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff3">Bishop Stuart University, P.O Box 9, Mbarara, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mucunguzi, Patrick" sort="Mucunguzi, Patrick" uniqKey="Mucunguzi P" first="Patrick" last="Mucunguzi">Patrick Mucunguzi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kalema, James" sort="Kalema, James" uniqKey="Kalema J" first="James" last="Kalema">James Kalema</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">26762159</idno><idno type="pmc">4712608</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4712608</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4712608</idno><idno type="doi">10.1186/s13002-015-0077-4</idno><date when="2016">2016</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000680</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plant species used by communities around Mabira Central Forest Reserve, Uganda</title><author><name sortKey="Tugume, Patience" sort="Tugume, Patience" uniqKey="Tugume P" first="Patience" last="Tugume">Patience Tugume</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kakudidi, Esezah K" sort="Kakudidi, Esezah K" uniqKey="Kakudidi E" first="Esezah K." last="Kakudidi">Esezah K. Kakudidi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Buyinza, Mukadasi" sort="Buyinza, Mukadasi" uniqKey="Buyinza M" first="Mukadasi" last="Buyinza">Mukadasi Buyinza</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Namaalwa, Justine" sort="Namaalwa, Justine" uniqKey="Namaalwa J" first="Justine" last="Namaalwa">Justine Namaalwa</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kamatenesi, Maud" sort="Kamatenesi, Maud" uniqKey="Kamatenesi M" first="Maud" last="Kamatenesi">Maud Kamatenesi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff3">Bishop Stuart University, P.O Box 9, Mbarara, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mucunguzi, Patrick" sort="Mucunguzi, Patrick" uniqKey="Mucunguzi P" first="Patrick" last="Mucunguzi">Patrick Mucunguzi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kalema, James" sort="Kalema, James" uniqKey="Kalema J" first="James" last="Kalema">James Kalema</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine</title><idno type="eISSN">1746-4269</idno><imprint><date when="2016">2016</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Background</title><p>An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants was carried out in 14 villages adjacent to Mabira Central Forest Reserve (CFR) in Central Uganda between August 2013 and March 2014.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>Information was obtained through interviews using semi- structured questionnaires. Field excursions with traditional healers and herbal medicine collectors were carried out. Descriptive statistics were used to present the data. Fidelity ratios and Informant consensus agreements were calculated.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>A total of 190 plant species in 61 families and 152 genera were reported in the treatment of various health conditions. Family Fabaceae was dominant representing 14 % of the plant species documented. <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> was the preferred species for treating malaria. Leaves (68 %) were the most frequently used parts in preparing herbal remedies. Decoctions (29 %) and oral route (53 %) of administration were commonly used method of herbal medicine preparation and administration respectively. Fifty-eight health conditions grouped in 25 categories were treated using medicinal plants. Informant consensus agreement was highest for blood system disorders (0.9) that included anaemia, hypertension and blood cleansing indicating homogeneity of informant’s knowledge about remedies used. <italic>Vernonia amygdalina and Erythrina abyssinica</italic> had 100 % fidelity level for treatment of malaria and vomiting respectively.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>The diversity of medicinal plant species used and the associated indigenous knowledge are of great value to the local community and their conservation and preservation is paramount. The therapeutic uses of the documented plants provides basic data for further research focused on pharmacological studies and conservation of the most important species.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Asiimwe, S" uniqKey="Asiimwe S">S Asiimwe</name></author><author><name sortKey="Namutebi, A" uniqKey="Namutebi A">A Namutebi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Borg Karlsson, A" uniqKey="Borg Karlsson A">A Borg-Karlsson</name></author><author><name sortKey="Kamatenesi Mugisha, M" uniqKey="Kamatenesi Mugisha M">M Kamatenesi-Mugisha</name></author><author><name sortKey="Oryem Origa, H" uniqKey="Oryem Origa H">H Oryem-Origa</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Joshi, Ar" uniqKey="Joshi A">AR Joshi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Joshi, K" uniqKey="Joshi K">K Joshi</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Kamatenesi 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">J Ethnobiol Ethnomed</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">J Ethnobiol Ethnomed</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1746-4269</issn><publisher><publisher-name>BioMed Central</publisher-name><publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">26762159</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4712608</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">77</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s13002-015-0077-4</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plant species used by communities around Mabira Central Forest Reserve, Uganda</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name><surname>Tugume</surname><given-names>Patience</given-names></name><address><email>patiebeys@gmail.com</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kakudidi</surname><given-names>Esezah K.</given-names></name><address><email>esezahk@gmail.com</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Buyinza</surname><given-names>Mukadasi</given-names></name><address><email>buyinza@forest.mak.ac.ug</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Namaalwa</surname><given-names>Justine</given-names></name><address><email>namaalwajustine@yahoo.com</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kamatenesi</surname><given-names>Maud</given-names></name><address><email>vc@bsu.ac.ug</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff3"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Mucunguzi</surname><given-names>Patrick</given-names></name><address><email>pmucunguzi@botany.mak.ac.ug</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Kalema</surname><given-names>James</given-names></name><address><email>jkalema@botany.mak.ac.ug</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><aff id="Aff1"><label></label>Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</aff><aff id="Aff2"><label></label>College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</aff><aff id="Aff3"><label></label>Bishop Stuart University, P.O Box 9, Mbarara, Uganda</aff></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>13</day><month>1</month><year>2016</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>13</day><month>1</month><year>2016</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2016</year></pub-date><volume>12</volume><elocation-id>5</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>1</day><month>9</month><year>2015</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>24</day><month>12</month><year>2015</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© Tugume et al. 2016</copyright-statement><license license-type="OpenAccess"><license-p><bold>Open Access</bold>This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/</ext-link>) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract id="Abs1"><sec><title>Background</title><p>An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants was carried out in 14 villages adjacent to Mabira Central Forest Reserve (CFR) in Central Uganda between August 2013 and March 2014.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>Information was obtained through interviews using semi- structured questionnaires. Field excursions with traditional healers and herbal medicine collectors were carried out. Descriptive statistics were used to present the data. Fidelity ratios and Informant consensus agreements were calculated.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>A total of 190 plant species in 61 families and 152 genera were reported in the treatment of various health conditions. Family Fabaceae was dominant representing 14 % of the plant species documented. <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> was the preferred species for treating malaria. Leaves (68 %) were the most frequently used parts in preparing herbal remedies. Decoctions (29 %) and oral route (53 %) of administration were commonly used method of herbal medicine preparation and administration respectively. Fifty-eight health conditions grouped in 25 categories were treated using medicinal plants. Informant consensus agreement was highest for blood system disorders (0.9) that included anaemia, hypertension and blood cleansing indicating homogeneity of informant’s knowledge about remedies used. <italic>Vernonia amygdalina and Erythrina abyssinica</italic> had 100 % fidelity level for treatment of malaria and vomiting respectively.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>The diversity of medicinal plant species used and the associated indigenous knowledge are of great value to the local community and their conservation and preservation is paramount. The therapeutic uses of the documented plants provides basic data for further research focused on pharmacological studies and conservation of the most important species.</p></sec></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Ethnobotanical</kwd><kwd>Medicinal plants</kwd><kwd>Mabira CFR</kwd><kwd>Fidelity level</kwd><kwd>Health conditions</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><award-group><funding-source><institution-wrap><institution-id institution-id-type="FundRef">http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100004424</institution-id><institution>African Development Bank Group (TN)</institution></institution-wrap></funding-source></award-group></funding-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>issue-copyright-statement</meta-name><meta-value>© The Author(s) 2016</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="Sec1" sec-type="introduction"><title>Background</title><p>The acceptance and use of herbal medicine is on the increase globally [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">3</xref>]. In Africa the situation is not different, over 80 % of the population particularly in the developing countries depends directly on plants for their primary healthcare requirements [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">5</xref>]. In the East African region countries such as Burundi [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">6</xref>] and Tanzania [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">7</xref>] that neighbour Uganda, the population using traditional medicine is also well above 80 % particularly in the rural areas [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">6</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">7</xref>]. Plants form an important part of health care especially for the rural poor in Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>]. The Ugandan government has specifically up scaled the use of herbal medicine and is in the process of integrating it into the main health care system [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">9</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR10">10</xref>]. The noted increased use of herbal medicine is as a result of the confirmed therapeutic evidence of the herbal remedies [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">11</xref>]. This has been enhanced by the consequences of limited access to modern health services in most developing countries including Uganda, high cost of modern medicine compared to the indigenous herbal medicines, wide socio-cultural acceptance of traditional medicine and the belief that natural products pose no risk [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">3</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR12">12</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR13">13</xref>].</p><p>The increased preference of herbal medicine has consequently propelled the search for pharmaceutical remedies against different ailments from plants [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">14</xref>]. The medicines are collected from the wild and this has negatively impacted on the plant resource due to unsustainable exploitation rates as well as the health of many people who cannot afford orthodox medicine [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">15</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>]. This makes documentation, sustainable utilisation as well as conservation essential [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">3</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">18</xref>]. The first step in conservation is to document material traditionally used to treat an ailment [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">15</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>]. Previous studies have identified and documented numerous medicinal plants for treatment of various diseases in Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>] however these have been targeting specific ailments and are not detailed in shared use. A larger number of medicinal plants and indigenous uses have not yet been documented. The rich history of African cultures and their innovative utilisation of plants as a source of remedies have been passed down through generations largely by oral tradition [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR20">20</xref>]. This knowledge is gradually being lost [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">21</xref>] as the custodians die before passing on information to the younger generations. Besides the gradual loss of ethnobotanical knowledge due to lack of documentation, overharvesting of medicinal materials from their natural habitat has been one of the major threats of traditional medicine. In order to conserve wild plant species, there is need for reliable data on their distribution and level of use [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">22</xref>].</p><p>The documentation of indigenous knowledge through ethnobotanical studies is important in conservation and utilization of biological resources [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">23</xref>]. The identification of local names, scientific names and indigenous uses of plants not only preserves indigenous knowledge but also facilitates future research on safety and efficacy of medicinal plants in treatment of various ailments [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">24</xref>]. It is against this background that utilization of medicinal plants as a source of primary health care by communities adjacent to Mabira CFR is documented. This will ensure that traditional knowledge about use of these plants is conserved. It will also facilitate the discovery of new sources of drugs and promote sustainable use of medicinal plant resources in Uganda. In addition conservation of medicinal plants will add value to the recreational environment as well as health improvement through sustained ecosystems. This study aimed at collecting data on plant species used to treat different health conditions by communities adjacent to Mabira CFR.</p></sec><sec id="Sec2"><title>Methods</title><sec id="Sec3"><title>Study area</title><p>The study area covered human settlement areas around Mabira CFR some of which were enclaves and others adjacent to the forest. Mabira CFR is located 20 km north of Lake Victoria shoreline immediately to the west of Victoria Nile. The forest reserve lies partly in Buikwe, Mukono and Kayunga districts and occupies an area of 306 km<sup>2</sup> with an altitudinal range of 1070 – 1340 m above sea level [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR25">25</xref>]. It is situated between latitude 0<sup>o</sup> 22’ and 0<sup>o</sup> 35’N and between longitude 32<sup>o</sup> 56’and 33<sup>o</sup> 02’E [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">26</xref>] (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>).<fig id="Fig1"><label>Fig. 1</label><caption><p>Map of Mabira CFR showing the study villages. The figure shows location of Mabira CFR in Uganda and specifically highlights the sites of villages where ethnobotanical surveys of medicinal plants were carried out. The map displays demarcations of the administrative boundaries showing the major road network and the main physical features in the study area</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="13002_2015_77_Fig1_HTML" id="MO1"></graphic></fig></p><p>The forest reserve occupies gently undulating landscape characterised by numerous flat-topped hills (relics of the ancient African peneplain), and wide shallow valleys [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref>]. The topography is such that the land drains to the north, even though the reserve’s southern boundary lies only 13 km from the lakeshore. The underlying rocks are composed of micaceous schists and shales of the Buganda- Toro system with ridges of quartzite and amphibolite. The soils are generally ferralitic sandy clay loams, with black waterlogged clays in the valley bottoms. The climate is tropical with two rainfall peaks from April to May and October to November ranging between 1,250 – 1,400 mm per annum. Annual mean temperature range, minimum: 16–17 ° C, maximum: 28–29 ° C. The vegetation of Mabira CFR was classified as “medium altitude moist semi-deciduous [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref>].</p><p>Commercial use of the forest began when some parts were harvested in the early 1900’s and until 1988, intensive coffee/banana agricultural encroachment badly damaged parts of the forest. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref>] About 21 % and 26 % of the reserve have been designated as strict nature reserve and buffer zone respectively and the forest in these areas is recovering following extensive plantings of native tree species.</p><p>The human population living in the forest enclaves was approximately 825,000 with a density of 200–230 people per Km<sup>-2</sup> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">29</xref>]. The local people are mainly of the Bantu ethnic group of the following tribes; Baganda, Banyarwanda, Basoga, Bagisu, Bakiga, Banyankole, Bagwere and Batoro.</p><p>The reserve has tea and sugarcane plantations around. Some local people reside in settlements for labourers on the tea and sugarcane estates [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">30</xref>]. The extent of growing cash crops other than tea and sugar cane is limited by scarcity of land. However locals are engaged in cultivation of food crops mainly for subsistence consumption like maize, beans, bananas, ground nuts, sweet potatoes and vegetables. Livestock rearing is limited to a few households.</p></sec><sec id="Sec4"><title>Ethical considerations</title><p>Ethical approval of the study was obtained from the Uganda National Council of Science and Technology (UNCST) under registration number SS 3368 after obtaining a research license from National forestry Authority (NFA).</p></sec><sec id="Sec5"><title>Data collection</title><p>This was a field survey targeting custodians of Traditional Medicine used in treatment of diseases. Verbal pre-informed consent was obtained from the participants before the interview. Interviews were conducted in Luganda the local language in the area using guided semi structured questionnaires and a research assistant that was conversant with the local language.</p><p>Collection of data on medicinal plants used to treat different ailments in the study area was according to a slight modification of Martin’s procedure [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">31</xref>]. Purposive sampling was used to identify 14 out of 27 villages that heavily depend on the forest for primary health care through a Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) with village leaders. Heavy dependence was defined by village council leaders’ local experience i.e. based on the number of individuals who depend wholly on herbal medicine for livelihoods. The study included villages within 1–5Km from the forest. This is because distance from the forest influence people’s use of forest products. Before entering each of the villages, permission was sought from local leaders after explaining the aim of the study who gave us the name of the first key informant while the rest of the respondents were selected by snow ball sampling technique. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">32</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">33</xref>] A total of 36 key informants were selected with at least two from each village and an additional eight knowledgeable herbalists recommended by the community members from Naluvule, Bukuku, Buwoola and Kalagala villages. The informants included primary collectors, vendors and traditional healers who are the custodians of indigenous knowledge on herbal medicines. Traditional healers are divided into two broad groups of herbalists who mainly use herbs while diviners also invoke ancestral spirits to guide them in their healing practice [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">34</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">36</xref>]. They provided information on plants and parts used, ailments treated, mode of preparation and administration, habit, source and availability of medicinal plants. Field excursions were conducted along forest trails taking traditional healers as guides and voucher specimens of cited medicinal plants were collected.</p></sec><sec id="Sec6"><title>Preference ranking</title><p>Preference ranking [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">31</xref>] of the 10 most available medicinal plant species and diseases commonly treated by each were shortlisted by the 12 key informants according to importance attached to the species as per frequency of use and effectiveness (number of days taken to healing in treating particular diseases successfully). The values assigned for each species across were summed up for all the informants to get an overall rank value. The species were then ranked in descending order with the species that had the highest total ranked first.</p></sec><sec id="Sec7"><title>Plant identification and processing of Voucher specimens</title><p>Plant identification was partly carried out in the field based on field manuals for plant identification [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR37">37</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">38</xref>]. Voucher specimens were collected and later identified at Makerere University Herbarium. Correctness of scientific names of species were also checked according to Tropicos:<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.tropicos.org/">http://www.tropicos.org</ext-link> database accessed on 12/05/2015.</p></sec><sec id="Sec8"><title>Data analysis</title><p>Descriptive statistics using frequencies and percentages were used to summarize data using Microsoft excel 2013. The ailments treated by the medicinal plants were classified into different categories [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">39</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="Sec9"><title>Informant consensus agreement</title><p>The informant consensus factor (F<sub>ic</sub>) was calculated to indicate the homogeny of information using the formula;<disp-formula id="Equa"><alternatives><tex-math id="M1">\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$ \begin{array}{rcl}{\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{ic}}& =& \frac{{\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{ur}} - {\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{taxa}}}{{\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{ur}}-1}\\ {}\mathrm{Where}\ {\mathrm{N}}_{\mathrm{ur}}& =& \mathrm{Number}\ \mathrm{of}\ \mathrm{use}\ \mathrm{reports}\end{array} $$\end{document}</tex-math><mml:math id="M2"><mml:mtable columnalign="center"><mml:mtr columnalign="center"><mml:mtd columnalign="right"><mml:msub><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">F</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">i</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">c</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub></mml:mtd><mml:mtd columnalign="center"><mml:mo>=</mml:mo></mml:mtd><mml:mtd columnalign="left"><mml:mfrac><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">u</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">r</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mspace width="0.25em"></mml:mspace><mml:msub><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">taxa</mml:mi></mml:msub></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">u</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">r</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:mfrac></mml:mtd></mml:mtr><mml:mtr columnalign="center"><mml:mtd columnalign="center"><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Where</mml:mi><mml:mspace width="0.25em"></mml:mspace><mml:msub><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">u</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">r</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msub></mml:mtd><mml:mtd columnalign="center"><mml:mo>=</mml:mo></mml:mtd><mml:mtd columnalign="left"><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Number</mml:mi><mml:mspace width="0.25em"></mml:mspace><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">of</mml:mi><mml:mspace width="0.25em"></mml:mspace><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">use</mml:mi><mml:mspace width="0.25em"></mml:mspace><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">reports</mml:mi></mml:mtd></mml:mtr></mml:mtable></mml:math><graphic xlink:href="13002_2015_77_Article_Equa.gif" position="anchor"></graphic></alternatives></disp-formula></p><p>N<sub>taxa</sub> = Number of species in each use category. It estimates the relationship between the number of use reports (N<sub>ur</sub>) minus the number of taxa used (N<sub>taxa</sub>) and the number of use reports in each category minus one [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">40</xref>].</p><p>F<sub>ic</sub> values are low if plants are chosen randomly or if informants do not exchange information about their use or disagree about the species used in treatment of an ailment category. The values are high (close to one) if the species are used by a large proportion of informants and there is a well-designed criterion in community or if information is exchanged between informants. Therefore the medicinal plants are presumed to be effective in treating a certain disease have higher F<sub>ic</sub> values [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">41</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="Sec10"><title>Fidelity level (FL)</title><p>Fidelity Level [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">42</xref>] was calculated for each of the 10 preferred species for their popularity according to the key informants who cited them in the treatment of particular ailments. Fidelity Level (FL) = Ip/I<sub>u</sub> x 100 %, where I<sub>p</sub> is the number of informants who suggested the use of a species for the same major ailment, I<sub>u</sub> is the total number of informants who mentioned the species for any use.</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec11"><title>Results</title><sec id="Sec12"><title>Medicinal plant uses</title><p>The communities around Mabira CFR use diverse flora in treatment of various ailments and local people possess rich traditional knowledge on medicinal plants (Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>). Both males and females used medicinal plants but males were dominant representing 70 % of the respondents. The age of the respondents ranged between 25–80 years. Generally 46 % of the respondents were below 50 years.<table-wrap id="Tab1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Medicinal plants, their habit, parts used, ailments treated, habitat, method of preparation and administration</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Family, scientific name voucher No.</th><th>Local name</th><th>Habit</th><th>Part used</th><th>Habitat</th><th>Ailment</th><th>Method of preparation and administration</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ACANTHACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Acanthus pubescens</italic> Engl. PT01</td><td>Matovu</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Prolonged embryo in uterus</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Measles</td><td>Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Asystasia gangetica</italic> (L.) T. Anderson PT242</td><td>Ttemba</td><td>H</td><td>F</td><td>FL</td><td>Reduce fever in children</td><td>Crush and bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Justicia betonica</italic> L.</td><td>Kwiniini omuganda</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT22</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Malaria</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Hernia</td><td>Decoction dunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Worm infection</td><td>Pound add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Justicia heterocarpa</italic> T. Anderson PT56</td><td>Kalaaza</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Bad odour in women</td><td>pound add to water and wash private parts</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Energy booster in pregnancy</td><td>Crush leaves in cold water and bathe early morning</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Thunbergia alata</italic> Sims</td><td rowspan="2">Kasaamusamu</td><td rowspan="2">C</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">FL</td><td rowspan="2">False teeth</td><td rowspan="2">Pound and smear at the point of emergence of false teeth</td></tr><tr><td>PT28</td></tr><tr><td>ALLIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Allium sativum</italic> L.</td><td>Katunguluccumu</td><td>H</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>Reduce heart beat</td><td>Chew and swallow</td></tr><tr><td>PT107</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Blood cleanser</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bad breath</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Constipation</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Snake bites</td><td>Smear at the point of the bite.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Swollen rib cage</td><td>Cut and smear</td></tr><tr><td>ALOEACEA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Aloe vera</italic><italic>(</italic>L.<italic>)</italic> Burm.f. PT108</td><td>Kigagi</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>C/F</td><td>Stomachache</td><td rowspan="2">1-3 leaves boiled, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Malaria</td></tr><tr><td>AMARANTHACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Achyranthes aspera</italic> L.</td><td>Mutassuka kkubo</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F/G</td><td>Swollen body Delayed walking in children</td><td>Crush and tie on affected part</td></tr><tr><td>PT50</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Itching body</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Pound add water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Aerva lanata</italic> (L.) Juss. ex Schult PT73</td><td>Lweza</td><td>H</td><td>W</td><td>FL</td><td>Body odour</td><td>Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Amaranthus dubius</italic> Mart. ex. Thell. PT 109</td><td>Doodo</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Constipation</td><td>Steam and eat</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Anemia</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Amaranthus spinosus</italic> L. PT243</td><td>Doodo owamagwa</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Fungal infections of the scalp</td><td>Pound with leaves of <italic>Cleome gynandra</italic> and smear on the scalp</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Celosia trigyna</italic> L. PT110</td><td>Kakubaggiri</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Persistent headaches</td><td>Rub on the head or Pound, dry, make cuts on the sides of the head and smear</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Psilotrichum elliotii</italic> Bak.</td><td rowspan="2">Kanamukasa</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Weakness in Pregnancy</td><td rowspan="2">Crush in cold water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT14</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds</td><td>Boil leaves and place on wound.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomach upsets</td><td>Pound add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td>ANACARDIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mangifera indica</italic> L.</td><td>Muyembe</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>C/F</td><td>Cough in children</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT111</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Infertility in women</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Steaming</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Pseudospondias microcarpa</italic> (A. Rich.) Engl. PT112</td><td>Muziru</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F/C</td><td>Yellow fever</td><td>Pound, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Diarrhoea</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Rhus vulgaris</italic> Meikle</td><td>Kakwansokwanso</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Crush, add water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT113</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>APIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Centella asiatica</italic> (L.) Urb. PT52</td><td>Mbutani</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Ulcers</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>APOCYNACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Alstonia boonei</italic> De Wild.</td><td rowspan="2">Mubajangalabi</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">B</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Malaria</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT120</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Carissa edulis</italic> (Forssk.) Vahl PT115</td><td>Nyonza</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Toothache</td><td>Pound, boil and press on tooth</td></tr><tr><td>ARISTOLOCHIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Aristolochia elegans</italic> Mast<break></break>PT114</td><td>Nakasero</td><td>V</td><td>S</td><td>W</td><td>Malaria</td><td>Steeped in water and drunk</td></tr><tr><td>ASCLEPIADACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Mondia whitei</italic> (Hook.f.) Skeels PT121</td><td>Mulondo</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F/G</td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td rowspan="2">Chewing</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Low appetite in sickness</td></tr><tr><td>ASTERACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ageratum conyzoides</italic> L.</td><td>Nnamirembe</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Crush and mix with water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT66</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Worm infection</td><td>Crush and mix with water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Bidens pilosa</italic> L. PT116</td><td>Ssere</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Wounds</td><td rowspan="2">Crush, Tie on wound and cut to stop bleeding</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fresh cuts</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Conyza adolfi-fridericii</italic> (Musch.) Wild PT117</td><td>Ekarwa</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Eye infections</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Conyza sumatrensis</italic> (Retz.)</td><td>Kafumbe omusaja</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Ringworms</td><td rowspan="2">Crush, add paraffin</td></tr><tr><td>E. Walker</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds</td></tr><tr><td>PT07</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Boil and steam the face</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Crassocephalum picridifolium</italic> (DC.) S. Moore PT26</td><td>Kitonto</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Crushed in cold water and bathed</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Dicrocephala integrifolia</italic> (L.F.) Kuntze</td><td>Buzza</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Wounds</td><td>Crush and Press on the wound or boil.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Boils</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PT64</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Pain in fallopian tubes</td><td>Pounded, dried, mixed with water & Drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Erlangea tomentosa</italic> (Oliv. & Hiern) S. Moore PT118</td><td>Kisula</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>G</td><td>Toothache</td><td>Crush & press on the tooth</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Helichrysum</italic> sp<italic>. Mill</italic></td><td rowspan="2">Nakabululu</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">G</td><td rowspan="2">Centipede bites</td><td rowspan="2">Crush, mix with salt & rub on the bitten area</td></tr><tr><td>PT119</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><italic>Melanthera scandens</italic>(Schumach. & Thonn.) Roberty</td><td>Makaayi</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Malaria</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Yellow fever</td></tr><tr><td>PT65</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Body odour</td><td>Crushed in water & bathed</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><italic>Microglossa angolensis</italic> Oliv. & Hiern</td><td>Kafuga nkande</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Reduce menstrual flow</td><td>Pound add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Headache</td></tr><tr><td>PT37</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Crush and bathe the child</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Sigesbeckia orientalis</italic> L.</td><td>Seziwundu</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Fresh cuts</td><td>Crush & tie on the cut</td></tr><tr><td>PT122</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachaches</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Sonchus oleraceus</italic> L. PT123</td><td>Kakovu</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Scars</td><td>Crush and rub on the scar</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4"><italic>Tagetes minuta</italic> L.</td><td>Kawunyira</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F,FL,G</td><td>Headache</td><td>Pound, mix with paraffin and rub on head</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Flu</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Imperforate vagina</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Pound, mix with water and wash the birth canal</td></tr><tr><td>PT76</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Blotting</td><td>Crush and inhale</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Vernonia amygdal</italic>ina Delile</td><td>Mululuza</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Malaria</td><td rowspan="3">Crash, add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT124</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Convulsions</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Vernonia auriculifera</italic> Hiern</td><td>Kikokooma</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Prolonged embryo in uterus</td><td>Roots chewed</td></tr><tr><td>PT90</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Vernonia grantii</italic> Oliv.</td><td>Etwatwa</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>G</td><td>Flu</td><td>Steam bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT125</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin rash</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Infections</td><td>Squeeze into the ear</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Vernonia lasiopus</italic> O. Hoffm.</td><td>Kaluluza</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Malaria</td><td>Crush and mix with cold water and drink</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT101</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Headache Migraine</td><td>Pound and drop in the nose.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Delayed delivery</td><td>Burn and chew</td></tr><tr><td>BALANITACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Balanites aegyptiaca</italic> (L) Delile</td><td>Liggwa limu</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>G</td><td>Yellow fever</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">PT126</td><td rowspan="5"></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Diarrhoea</td><td rowspan="2">Mixed with <italic>Citrus limon</italic> leaves, boiled and drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin rash, Flu</td><td>Boil & wash</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Paronychia</td><td>Crush and tie on finger</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>B</td><td></td><td>Impotency</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Balanites wilsoniana</italic> Dawe & Spraque PT130</td><td>Naliggwalimu</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Cracks of soles of feet</td><td>Crush and smear on feet</td></tr><tr><td>BASELLACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Basella alba</italic> L.</td><td>Nderema</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Stomachache Constipation</td><td rowspan="2">Dry, pound and add to sauce</td></tr><tr><td>PT128</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Prolonged embryo in uterus</td></tr><tr><td>BIGNONIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><italic>Kigelia africana</italic> (Lam.) Benth.</td><td>Mussa</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Stress</td><td rowspan="3">Decoction drunk & bathed</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>High blood pressure</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Impotency</td></tr><tr><td>PT127</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Loss of appetite</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Markhamia lutea</italic> (Benth.) K. Schum</td><td>Musambya</td><td>T</td><td>FL</td><td>F</td><td>Ear & eye infections in children</td><td>Pound and drop in the ear or eye</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT129</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Malaria</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Hoarse voice</td><td>Chew</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Spathodea campanulata</italic></td><td>Kifabakazi</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Pregnancy care</td><td>Crush add water & bathe</td></tr><tr><td>P. Beauv.</td><td></td><td></td><td>B</td><td></td><td>Increase vaginal fluids</td><td>Pound, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT131</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Infertility</td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin infection</td><td>Boil and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Hernia</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>BRASSICACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Cardamine trichocarpa</italic> Hochst. Ex. Rich.</td><td>Mageregankoko</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Athletes foot</td><td>Burn and squeeze on the feet</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Ringworms</td><td rowspan="2">Boil and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT132</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Immobility in children</td></tr><tr><td>BURSERACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><italic>Canarium schweinfurthii</italic> Engl. PT133</td><td>Muwafu</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td rowspan="3">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diabetes</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td></tr><tr><td>CANELLACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Warburgia ugandensis</italic> Sprague PT136</td><td>Barwegyira</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Flu</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td></tr><tr><td>CANNABACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Cannabis sativa</italic> L.</td><td>Njaga</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>C</td><td>Measles</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT135</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Body weakness</td></tr><tr><td>CAPPARACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Cleome gynandra</italic> L.</td><td>Jjobyo</td><td>H</td><td>R</td><td>FL</td><td>Ease delivery Fungal skin infections on head</td><td>Chew the roots</td></tr><tr><td>PT134</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Mix in sheep dung and smear on the affected parts</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Cleome monophylla</italic> L.</td><td rowspan="2">Kayobyo akasaja</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">FL</td><td rowspan="2">FL,W</td><td rowspan="2">Retained placenta</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td>PT137</td></tr><tr><td>CARICACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Carica papaya</italic> L.</td><td>Mapapali</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>C/F</td><td>Cough</td><td>Dry, pound, mix in water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">PT138</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Low immunity</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cracks on soles of feet</td><td>Scrub on the soles of feet</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin infection</td><td>Pound mix with water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Loss of memory</td><td>Burn and smell</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Measles</td><td>Pound add water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>Pound add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Elaeodendron buchananii</italic> Loes.</td><td>Mbaluka</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Blocked fallopian tube</td><td rowspan="3">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Prostate cancer</td></tr><tr><td>PT121</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td></tr><tr><td>CHENOPODIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Chenopodium opulifolium</italic> Koch & Ziz</td><td>Mwetango</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Oral wounds</td><td>Chew mixed with salt</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT83</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin rash</td><td rowspan="2">Pound, add little salt put on tooth</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Toothache</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sore throat</td><td>Squeeze in mouth and swallow</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Chenopodium procerum</italic> Hochst. ex Moq. PT37</td><td>Mugoosola</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Weakness during pregnancy</td><td>Herbal bath</td></tr><tr><td>CLUSIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Psorospermum febrifugum</italic> Spach</td><td>Kanzironziro</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>W</td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Pound, dry, mix in Vaseline and smear</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT139</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Dry cough</td><td>Pound, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds</td><td>Pound, mix with water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Garcinia buchananii</italic> Baker PT140</td><td>Musali</td><td>T</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Hurting bones</td><td rowspan="2">Pound add to tea</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diabetes</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Harungana madagascariensis</italic> Lam. ex Poir.</td><td rowspan="2">Mulirira</td><td rowspan="2">S</td><td rowspan="2">B</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Yellow fever</td><td rowspan="2">Pound add to water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT210</td></tr><tr><td>COMBRETACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C<italic>ombretum molle</italic> R. Br. G. Don</td><td rowspan="2">Ndagi</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">B</td><td rowspan="2">G</td><td rowspan="2">Cough</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT03</td></tr><tr><td>COMMELINACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Commelina benghalensis</italic> L.</td><td>Nnanda</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Vaginal dryness</td><td>Pound , mix with water and wash private parts</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT145</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Weakness in sickness</td><td rowspan="2">Pound, add water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Abortion</td></tr><tr><td>CONVOLVULACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ipomea batatas</italic> (L.) Lam.</td><td>Lumonde</td><td>C</td><td>T</td><td>C</td><td>Memory loss</td><td>Chew</td></tr><tr><td>PT141</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Paronychia</td><td>Burn and pound and tie on the finger</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Hewittia sublobata</italic> L. Kuntze</td><td>Musota taluma</td><td>C</td><td>V</td><td>F/G</td><td>Pregnancy care(widens pelvic girdle)</td><td>Tie in the waist</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT239</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td>Smear on head and bitten part</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>T</td><td></td><td>Snake bites</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Persistent headache</td><td>Crush and smear on the head</td></tr><tr><td>CRASSULACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Kalanchoe crenata</italic> (Andrews) Haw.</td><td>Kayondo akatono</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td rowspan="2">Healing umbilical cord wounds in babies</td><td>Place on fire & squeeze onto the cord</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">PT143</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Crush, add water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin rash in babies</td><td>Crush add water & drink</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Herbal bath</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Pound mix with water and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Kalanchoe glaucescens</italic> Britten</td><td>Kiyondo</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL/G</td><td>Cough</td><td>Crush and drink</td></tr><tr><td>PT142</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Break cords from new borns</td><td>Put the leaves on fire and squeeze on the cord</td></tr><tr><td>CUCURBITACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Kedrostis foetidissima</italic> (Jacq.) Cogn.</td><td>Ziizi (kabaka wenva)</td><td>V</td><td>W</td><td>F</td><td>Measles in children</td><td>Mix with silver fish and boil and drink</td></tr><tr><td>PT205</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Loss of appetite</td><td>Boil and add to sauce</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mormodica feotida</italic> Schumach</td><td rowspan="2">Lujjula (bombo)</td><td rowspan="2">V</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Body odour</td><td rowspan="2">Pound , mix with water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT144</td></tr><tr><td>DRACAENACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Dracaena fragrans</italic> (L.) Ker. Gawl. PT149</td><td rowspan="2">Mulamura</td><td rowspan="2">S</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Tooth ache</td><td>Chew and spit</td></tr><tr><td>R</td><td></td><td>Rheumatism</td><td>Pound and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Dracaena steudneri</italic> Engl.</td><td>Kajolyenjovu</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Cough</td><td>Burn the leaves and collect the ash add salt and lick</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">PT146</td><td></td><td></td><td>B</td><td></td><td>Scars</td><td>Pound the bark, mix with ghee, smear on the scar</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Snake bites</td><td>Pound and press on the bitten part</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Syphilis</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin infections</td><td>Pound mix with water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Kidney stones</td><td>Pound ,decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>FL</td><td></td><td></td><td>To stop smoking and alcoholism</td><td>Pound, dry add little water and drop in a cigarette or alcohol</td></tr><tr><td>EBENACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Diospyros abyssinica</italic> (Hiern) F. White PT147</td><td>Mpojja</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Stomach upsets</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>EUPHOBIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Acalypha bipartita</italic> Müll. Arg. PT148</td><td>Jerengesa</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Constipation</td><td>Crush, add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Alchornea cordifolia</italic> (Schumach. & Thonn.) Müll. Arg. PT06</td><td>Luzibaziba</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Shaking body</td><td>Crush and bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Croton macrostachyus</italic> Hochst. ex. Delile</td><td>Musogasoga</td><td>T</td><td>L & R</td><td>F</td><td>One stuck by lightening</td><td>Pound add to water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">PT240</td><td></td><td></td><td>V</td><td></td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Tie in the waist</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Tie on the head</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>T</td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td rowspan="2">Pound and smear on the bite</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>snake bites</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Euphorbia hirta</italic> L.</td><td>Kasandasanda</td><td>H</td><td>S</td><td>FL</td><td>Swollen eyes</td><td>Drop the sap in the affected eye.</td></tr><tr><td>PT150</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Joint pains</td><td>Pound, dry , mix with Vaseline and smear on the joints</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Euphorbia trigona</italic> Haw.</td><td>Kakukulo</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Yellow fever</td><td>Pound mix with ghee and maize flour and smear body</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT151</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin allergy in children</td><td>Pound and to water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>S</td><td></td><td>Backache</td><td>Cut and release the sap on the cut.</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Eurphobia tirucalli</italic> L.</td><td rowspan="2">Lukoni/nkoni</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">L & S</td><td rowspan="2">C</td><td rowspan="2">Warts</td><td rowspan="2">Drop the sap on the wart</td></tr><tr><td>PT152</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Flueggea virosa</italic> (Roxb.ex Willd.) Royle. PT17</td><td>Lukandwa</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Infertility in women</td><td>Pound add to water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Hymenocardia acida</italic> Tul.</td><td rowspan="2">Nabaluka</td><td rowspan="2">T/S</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">W</td><td rowspan="2">Sinuses</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT153</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Jatropha curcas</italic> L.</td><td>Kirowa</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>C</td><td>Tooth decay</td><td>Crush and drop sap on tooth</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT160</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td>Crush, add water & wash the head</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Crush & Bathe in cold water</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Margaritaria discoidea</italic> (Baill). G.L. Webster</td><td rowspan="2">Kamenyambazi</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">B</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Oversleeping</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT161</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ricinus communis</italic> L.</td><td>Nsogasoga</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>C,F</td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Poundadd to water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT154</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Ear infection</td><td>Pound add drop in the ear</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Tetrochidium didymostemon</italic> (Baill.) Pax & K. Hoffm PT155</td><td>Mukejje</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Measles</td><td>Crush add to water and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Tragia benthamii</italic> Baker</td><td>Kamyu</td><td>H</td><td>R</td><td>G</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Pound , dry and add to tea</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT40</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>Chew</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Madness</td><td>Pound ,cut in the head and smear</td></tr><tr><td>FABACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Abrus precatorius</italic> L</td><td>Lusiiti</td><td>C</td><td>L</td><td>W/FL</td><td>Low immunity</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT162</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Worm infection</td><td>Chew and swallow</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Acacia constricta</italic> Benth.</td><td>Muwelamanyo</td><td>T</td><td>R</td><td>FL</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT163</td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td>Sinuses</td><td rowspan="2">Steam bathe</td></tr><tr><td>Convulsions in children</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Acacia hockii</italic> De Wild.</td><td rowspan="2">Kasaana</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">R</td><td rowspan="2">W,G</td><td rowspan="2">Swollen joints and feet</td><td rowspan="2">Pound, boil with cows hooves and drink soup</td></tr><tr><td>PT18</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Acacia macrothyrsa</italic> Harms PT156</td><td>Muwologoma</td><td>T</td><td></td><td>W</td><td>Hydrocele</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Acacia siberiana</italic> (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr.</td><td>Muwawa</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>W</td><td>Sinuses</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT157</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Convulsions in children</td><td>Herbal bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Albizia coriaria</italic> Welw.</td><td>Mugavu</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Boil and bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT158</td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td>Cough in children.</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>Swollen rectum</td><td>Boil and sit in the water</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Albizia grandibracreata</italic></td><td>Nongo</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Yellow fever, Anaemia</td><td>Pound, dry and mix with water and drink</td></tr><tr><td>PT60</td><td></td><td></td><td>B</td><td></td><td>Fungal infections of the scalp</td><td>Pound inner bark, mix in water and wash the head</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Alysicarpus vaginalis</italic> (L.) DC. PT31</td><td>Nakalimikamu</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Irregular menstrual periods</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mimosa pudica</italic> L.</td><td rowspan="2">Wewumbe</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">G/F</td><td rowspan="2">Treat children that have failed to walk.</td><td rowspan="2">Crush and smear on joints</td></tr><tr><td>PT164</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Crotalaria agathiflora</italic> Scheinf. ex Engl. PT165</td><td>Kijebejebe</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Low breast milk production</td><td>Mix leaves with fresh simsim, boiled & drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Crotalaria natalitia</italic> Meisn PT166</td><td>Tulo</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Nightmares</td><td>Burn and inhale smoke</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Crotalaria spinosa</italic> Hochst.</td><td>Kasambandege</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Crush and mix in water and drink Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">PT170</td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td>Skin itching</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td>Convulsions</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Prolonged embryo in uterus</td><td>Pound a few leaves mix with water & drink</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Constipation</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Dichrostachys cinerea</italic> Wight et. Arn. PT159</td><td>Muwanika</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>G</td><td>Hutch bark</td><td>Decoction in early stages of the condition drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Erythrina abyssinica</italic> Lam.</td><td>Jjiirikiti</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F/G</td><td>Yellow fever</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">PT167</td><td rowspan="5"></td><td rowspan="5"></td><td rowspan="5"></td><td rowspan="5"></td><td>Convulsions</td><td rowspan="5">Pound, add salt, put in a clean cloth and squeeze in the mouth</td></tr><tr><td>Anaemia</td></tr><tr><td>Infertility in women</td></tr><tr><td>Hicupp</td></tr><tr><td>Vomiting</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Entada abyssinica</italic> Steud. ex A. Rich.</td><td>Mwoloola</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>W</td><td>Body weakness</td><td>Boil in water and bathe when cold</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT168</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Oral wounds</td><td>Chew with salt</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin infections, fresh cuts and wounds</td><td>Crush, rub and tie on affected part or wound</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Change sex of children</td><td>Concoction boiled and drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Indigofera arrecta</italic> Hochst. A. Rich PT81</td><td>Kabamba maliba</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Snake bites</td><td>Pound, add water</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds</td><td>Crush & tie on wound</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Indigofera congesta</italic> Welw.ex. Baker</td><td rowspan="2">Namasumi</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">G</td><td rowspan="2">Malaria</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT169</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Indigofera drepanocarpa</italic> Taub.</td><td>Sebazinga nkata</td><td>H</td><td>S</td><td>G</td><td>Colic pains</td><td>Sap ingested</td></tr><tr><td>PT14</td><td></td><td></td><td>W</td><td></td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Tie in the waist</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Indigofera emarginella</italic> Steud. ex A. Rich. PT170</td><td>Katungansozi</td><td>H</td><td>R</td><td>G</td><td>Elephantiasis</td><td>Pound, mix with vaseline and smear</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Indigofera spicata</italic> Forssk.</td><td rowspan="2">Mukaliza</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">G</td><td rowspan="2">Vaginal discharge</td><td rowspan="2">Crush in water and wash private parts</td></tr><tr><td>PT02</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Piptadeniastrum africanum</italic> (Hook F.) Brenan PT59</td><td>Mpewere</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Cough</td><td>Steam bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Rhychosia hirta</italic> (Andr.) Meikle & Verdc. PT171</td><td>Katinvuma</td><td>C</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Herpes zoster</td><td>Crush and smear on affected parts</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Senna absus</italic> (L.) Roxb.</td><td rowspan="2">Mucuula</td><td rowspan="2">S</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Prolonged embryo in uterus, Malaria</td><td rowspan="2">Pound add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td>PT172</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Senna didymobotrya</italic>(Fresen.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby</td><td>Mukyula</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Change sex of children</td><td rowspan="2">Pound, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT180</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Sesbania sesban</italic> (L.) Merr.</td><td>Muzimbandeya</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td>PT185</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diabetes</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Tamarindus indica</italic> L.</td><td>Mukooge</td><td>T</td><td>R</td><td>W/F</td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Steam the face</td></tr><tr><td>PT186</td><td></td><td></td><td>FR</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Vigna unguiculata</italic> L.</td><td rowspan="2">Kiyindiru</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F/G</td><td rowspan="2">Sore throat</td><td rowspan="2">Add salt and chew</td></tr><tr><td>PT173</td></tr><tr><td>FLACOURTIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Dovyalis macrocalyx</italic> (Oliv. J. Warb) PT61</td><td>Mutunku</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Wounds</td><td>Crush & tie on wound</td></tr><tr><td>LAMIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Coleus latifolius</italic> Hochst. Ex. Benth. PT38</td><td>Mubiru</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>G</td><td>Vaginal dryness</td><td>Steam and insert in birth canal</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Clerodendrum myricoides</italic> (Hochst.) R. Br.Vatke PT55</td><td>Kikonge</td><td>T</td><td>R</td><td>G</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Pound add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Hoslundia opposita</italic> Vahl</td><td>Kamunye</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F,G</td><td>Painful uterus</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">PT89</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomach cleanser</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Malaria</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fresh cuts</td><td>Crush and squeeze on the cut and tie around the cut.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Pound, dry add to Vaseline and smear</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Leonotis nepetifolia</italic> (L.) R</td><td>Kifumufumu</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Abdominal pain</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Br. PT174</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Kidney stones</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Body pains(muscles)</td><td>Crush + paraffin and smear on painful parts</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mentha</italic> Sp<italic>.</italic></td><td rowspan="2">Nabugira</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Body odour</td><td rowspan="2">Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT175</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ocimum basilicum</italic> L.</td><td>Kakubansiri</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F,W</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Pound, add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT82</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Pain during pregnancy</td><td rowspan="3">Crush and smear</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Prevent miscarriage</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Insect bites</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ocimum gratissum</italic> L.</td><td>Mujaja</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Decoction drunk/boiled in tea and drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT176</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bad breath</td><td rowspan="2">Squeeze leaves in cold water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Kwashiorkor</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Plectranthus barbartus</italic> Andr. PT57</td><td>Kibwankulata</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Wounds</td><td>Crush and tie on wound</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Tetradenia riparia</italic> (Hochst.) Codd</td><td>Kyewamala</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>C</td><td>Cough</td><td>Crush, mix with water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT178</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Squeeze the leaves and drop in ear or eye</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Eye & ear infections</td><td rowspan="2">Pound mix in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td></tr><tr><td>LAURACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Persea americana</italic> Mill.</td><td rowspan="2">Avacado pear</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">B</td><td rowspan="2">C/F</td><td rowspan="2">Cough</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT179</td></tr><tr><td>LOGANIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Strychnos innocua</italic> Del.</td><td>Muyondo</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>W</td><td>Athletes foot</td><td>Heat on fire & press on affected area</td></tr><tr><td>PT181</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Tooth decay/pain</td><td>Boil and mix with salt and press on tooth</td></tr><tr><td>MALVACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>A<italic>butilon mauritianum</italic><break></break>(Jacq.) Medik. PT42</td><td>Kifuula</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>W</td><td>Change sex of children</td><td>Squeeze in water and drink before getting pregnant</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Hibiscus acetosella Welw</italic>. Ex Fic PT23</td><td>Musaayi</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Anaemia</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Sida alba</italic> L.</td><td>Keyeyo</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>W</td><td>Fractures</td><td rowspan="2">Pound, smear on swollen body with or without Vaseline</td></tr><tr><td>PT182</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Swollen body</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Sida cuneifolia</italic> Roxb.</td><td>Kakumirizi</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Fractures</td><td>Crush and Press on the affected area</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT53</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Pain the fallopian tubes</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>herbal bathe</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Sida rhombifolia</italic> L. PT09</td><td>Luvunvu</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Lack of breast milk</td><td>Boil with silver fish and drink</td></tr><tr><td>MELASTOMATACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Tristemma maritiana</italic> A. Juss. PT97</td><td>Musesemya</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Enable one to eat meat or fish</td><td>Pound, dry and add to sauce</td></tr><tr><td>MINESPARMACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Cissampelos mucronata</italic> A. Rich.</td><td>Kavamagombe</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>G</td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td><td>Pound, add to water & bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">PT63</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Backache</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Snake bites,</td><td>Pound leaves and tie on affected part</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Swollen legs</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Aching bones</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Pound add water & drink</td></tr><tr><td>MORACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Antiaris toxicaria</italic> Lesch.</td><td>Kilundu</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Headache</td><td rowspan="2">Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT183</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Weakness in pregnancy</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ficus cyathistipula</italic> Warb.</td><td rowspan="2">Mubembe</td><td rowspan="2">S</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">High blood pressure</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT99</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ficus dawei Hutch</italic>.</td><td>Muwo</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Breast cancer</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT184</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds</td><td>Dried powder applied to the wound</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ficus mucuso</italic> Welw. ex Ficalho PT186</td><td>Kabalira</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Swollen eyes</td><td>Pound, burn and press on the eye</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ficus natalensis</italic> Hochst.</td><td rowspan="2">Mutuba</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">B</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Gonorrhea</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT187</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Milicia excelsa</italic> (Welw.) C.C. Berg</td><td>Muvule</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Boil and bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT188</td><td></td><td></td><td>S</td><td></td><td>Burns</td><td>Pour sap on burn area</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fresh cuts</td><td>Smear the sap on the cut</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Myrianthus arboreus</italic> P. Beav. PT195</td><td>Mugango</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Control pregnancy</td><td>Tie on the waist</td></tr><tr><td>MORINGACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Moringa oleifera</italic> Lam.</td><td rowspan="2">Muringa</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">FL</td><td rowspan="2">C</td><td rowspan="2">Aching joints</td><td rowspan="2">Pound , dry sieve, mix with Vaseline and smear on joints</td></tr><tr><td>PT189</td></tr><tr><td>MUSACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><italic>Musa paradisiaca</italic> L. <italic>var paradisiaca</italic> PT190</td><td>Kitooke ekiganda</td><td>H</td><td>FL</td><td>C</td><td>Prolonged embryo in uterus</td><td>Pound the sheath & chew</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Swollen legs</td><td>Chew the roots</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>S</td><td></td><td>Sternum pain</td><td>Pound and smear on swollen or painful part</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Musa paradisiaca</italic> L. var <italic>sapientum</italic></td><td>Gonja</td><td>H</td><td>F</td><td>C</td><td>Neck pain</td><td>Tie the fiber in the neck and waist</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT191</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Control pregnancy</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>FR</td><td></td><td>Umbilical cord wounds</td><td>Scrape and put on cord</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Induce labour</td><td>Place in fire and chew</td></tr><tr><td>MYRICACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Morella kandtiana</italic> (Engl.) Verdic & Polhill</td><td>Mukikimbo</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Crush in cold water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT192</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Snake bites</td><td>Chew and smear at the site of the bite</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Hernia of the heart</td><td>Chew and swallow</td></tr><tr><td>MYRTACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Callistemon citrinus</italic> (Curtis) Skeels</td><td>Mwambala zitonya</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>C</td><td>Pain in the Fallopian tubes</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT88</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Eucalyptus</italic> sp</td><td>Kalituunsi</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>Cough</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT193</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Boils</td><td>Mix with 10 seeds of Jackfruit and leaves of <italic>Erythrina abyssinica</italic> and mix in 4 cups of water and boil to 3 cups, drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Psidium guajava</italic> L. PT200</td><td>Mupeera</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>C</td><td>Cough</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Syzgium cumini</italic> L. PT201</td><td>Jambula</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>C</td><td>Cough</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><italic>Syzygium cordatum</italic> Hochst. PT194</td><td>Kanzironziro</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>C/F</td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Crush and mix in Vaseline and smear</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Dry cough</td><td>Pound, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds</td><td>Pound, mix with water and wash wound</td></tr><tr><td>MYRSINANCEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Maesa lanceolata</italic> G. Don</td><td>Kiwondowondo</td><td>T</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Ulcers, Diarrhoea</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT04</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Herbal bathe</td></tr><tr><td>OXALIDACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Oxalis corniculata</italic> L.</td><td>Kajjampuni</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Wounds</td><td>Squeeze and drop juice on wounds.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">PT195</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Athletes foot</td><td>Place on fire and place on toes</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin cancer</td><td>Pound, dry and put on the wound</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Chew the leaves</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diabetes, Hormonal imbalance</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PASSIFLORACEA</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Passsiflora edulis</italic> Sims</td><td rowspan="2">Katunda</td><td rowspan="2">C</td><td rowspan="2">FR</td><td rowspan="2">C/F</td><td rowspan="2">Weakness in sickness</td><td rowspan="2">Squeeze juice, add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td>PT196</td></tr><tr><td>PHYLLANTHACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Phyllanthus guineensis</italic> Pax</td><td rowspan="2">Mutulika</td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Measles</td><td rowspan="2">Crushed in water and bathed</td></tr><tr><td>PT87</td></tr><tr><td>PHYTOLACACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Phytolaca dodecandra</italic> L’Hér.</td><td>Luwoko</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Pound, mix in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT197</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Swollen joints</td><td>Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>FR/S</td><td></td><td>Cracks on the soles of the feet</td><td>Crush and smear on the feet soles</td></tr><tr><td>PLANTAGONIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Plantago palmata</italic> Hook.f.</td><td rowspan="2">Bukumbu</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">R</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Skin rash in children</td><td rowspan="2">Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>PT85</td></tr><tr><td>POACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Arundinaria alpina</italic> K. Schum. PT198</td><td>Mabanda</td><td>G</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Fainting/Epilepsy</td><td rowspan="2">Pound and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin rash</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Cymbopogon citratus</italic> (DC) Stapf PT199</td><td>Kisubi</td><td>G</td><td>R</td><td>G</td><td>Pain in fallopian tubes</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Cymbopogon nardus</italic> (L.) Rendle PT91</td><td>Kitete</td><td>G</td><td>R</td><td>G</td><td>Eye infection</td><td>Pound, dry add to eyes</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Pain in fallopian tubes</td><td>Pound add water & drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Cynodon dactylon</italic> (L.) Pers. PT44</td><td>Kalandalugo</td><td>G</td><td>S</td><td>G</td><td>Prolonged embryo in uterus</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Painful breasts</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Digitaria abyssinica (A. Rich.) Stapf</italic></td><td>Lumbugu</td><td>G</td><td>W</td><td>G</td><td>Convulsions</td><td>Cut boil and steam</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT202</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Flu</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diarrhoea</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Imperata cylindrica</italic> (L.) P. Beauv. PT203</td><td>Lusenke</td><td>G</td><td>R & L</td><td>G</td><td>Snake bites</td><td>Chew roots and tie leaves at the site of the bite</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Pennisetum purpureum</italic> Schumach. PT204</td><td>Kisagazi</td><td>G</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Penile erection in baby boys</td><td>Crush in water and wash the penis</td></tr><tr><td>POLYGONACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Rumex abyssinicus</italic> Jacq.</td><td>Muleretu</td><td>H</td><td>R</td><td>G</td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td rowspan="2">Chewing</td></tr><tr><td>PT135</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Low appetite after sickness</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Oxygonum sinuatum</italic> (Meissn.) Dammer</td><td>Kafumita bagenge</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Wounds</td><td>Pound and tie around the affected finger</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT67</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Paronychia & boils</td><td rowspan="2">Mix with ghee and rub on affected joints</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Painful joints</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Polygonum setosulum</italic> A. Rich PT206</td><td>Kifumita bagenda</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>wounds</td><td rowspan="2">Pound and tie around the affected finger</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Paronychia</td></tr><tr><td>PORTULACACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Portulaca oleracea</italic> L.</td><td rowspan="2">Ssezira</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">FL</td><td rowspan="2">Irregular menstrual periods, Stomachache</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT207</td></tr><tr><td>PRIMULACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Primula sieboldii</italic> E. Morren PT208</td><td>Muyuki</td><td>H</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Tonsillitis</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Ulcers</td></tr><tr><td>RHAMNACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Maesopsis eminii</italic> Engl.</td><td rowspan="2">Musizi</td><td rowspan="2">T</td><td rowspan="2">R</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Syphilis</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT209</td></tr><tr><td>ROSACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Prunus africana</italic> (Hook.f.) Kalkman PT220</td><td>Ngwabuzito</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Fainting</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Prostate cancer</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Rubus pinnatus</italic> willd</td><td rowspan="2">Nkenene</td><td rowspan="2">S</td><td rowspan="2">FR</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Energy booster</td><td rowspan="2">Eat fresh</td></tr><tr><td>PT238</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Rubus rigidus</italic> Sm</td><td>Kawule</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Stomach upsets</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT79</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Skin rash</td><td>Pound, dry mix with Vaseline and smear</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Snake bites</td><td>Crush and tie on affected area.</td></tr><tr><td>RUBIACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Coffea eugenioides</italic> S. Moore</td><td>Mwanyi</td><td>S</td><td>FR</td><td>F</td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>Roast and chew</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT221</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Oversleeping</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>Chew</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>S</td><td></td><td>Heart burn</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mitragyna stipulosa</italic> Kuntze PT230</td><td>Nzigu</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>prolapsed rectum</td><td>Pound place sap on rectum and tie some leaves on.</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Rubia cordifolia</italic> L.</td><td>Kasarabakesi</td><td>C</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Cough</td><td>Pound with onions, add salt & Lick</td></tr><tr><td>PT25</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Tuberculosis</td><td>Dry, burn & lick the ash</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Vangueria apiculata</italic> K. Schum. PT222</td><td>Matugunda</td><td>S</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Hiccups</td></tr><tr><td>RUTACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><italic>Citropsis articulata</italic> Swingle & Kellerm. PT223</td><td>Katimbolo</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td rowspan="2">Impotence</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Citrus limon</italic> (L.) Osbeck.</td><td>Nimawa</td><td>T</td><td>FR</td><td>C/F</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Juice drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">PT229</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Blotting</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Skin rash/pimples</td><td>Add to water and wash the affected parts</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Chop, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sore throat</td><td>Chew</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Nausea during sickness</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Citrus sinensis</italic> (L.) Osbeck</td><td rowspan="2">Muchungwa</td><td rowspan="2">S</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">C/F</td><td rowspan="2">Bad breath</td><td rowspan="2">Chew</td></tr><tr><td>PT228</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Teclea nobilis</italic> Del. PT227</td><td>Nzo</td><td>T</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Body cleanser</td><td>Boil with <italic>afromomum</italic> and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><italic>Zanthoxylum chalybeum</italic> Engl. PT224</td><td rowspan="3">Ntale ya ddungu</td><td rowspan="3">T</td><td>R</td><td>F/W</td><td>Cervical cancer</td><td>Pound, add water & drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">B</td><td rowspan="2"></td><td>Stomachaches</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>SAPINDACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Blighia unijugata</italic> Baker</td><td>Mukuzanyana</td><td>T</td><td>B</td><td>F</td><td>Cervical cancer,</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td>PT29</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fibroids</td></tr><tr><td>SOLANACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Capsicum frutescens</italic> L.</td><td>Kamulali</td><td>H</td><td>FR</td><td>C/F</td><td>Hernia, Pancreas</td><td>Swallow the fruits</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT225</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Prostate cancer</td><td>Eat in food</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>Pound, add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Datura stramonium</italic> L.</td><td rowspan="2">Kituratura</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">R</td><td rowspan="2">FL</td><td rowspan="2">Failure to walk in children</td><td rowspan="2">Pound roots, put under fire and press the feet of the child</td></tr><tr><td>PT226</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Lycoperscon esculentum</italic> (L.) H. Karst</td><td>Nyanya</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>FL</td><td>Skin infections</td><td>Herbal bathe</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT231</td><td></td><td></td><td>FR</td><td></td><td>Anaemia</td><td>Eat raw</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Kidney stones</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Nicotiana tobaccum</italic> L</td><td>Taaba</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>C/FL</td><td>Snake bites</td><td>Chew and vomit the venom</td></tr><tr><td>TP232</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Paronychia</td><td>Tie on the affected finger.</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Physalis peruviana</italic> L.</td><td>Ntutunu enene</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Fainting</td><td>Smear whole body</td></tr><tr><td>PT236</td><td></td><td></td><td>FR</td><td></td><td>Ear & Eye infection</td><td>Chew and swallow</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Solanum anguivi</italic> Hook</td><td>Katunkuma</td><td>H</td><td>FR</td><td>C/F</td><td>Measles</td><td>Pound ripe fruits, smear whole body</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT237</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Boil, pound and dry, add to food</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Weakness during sickness</td><td>Steam and eat as a vegetable</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Blood cleanser</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Solanum dasyphyllum</italic></td><td>Ntengontengo</td><td>S</td><td>FR</td><td>FL</td><td rowspan="2">“Elongation of the labia minora</td><td rowspan="2">Roast in fire, peel of the outer parts, use endocarp.</td></tr><tr><td>Schumach. & Thonn.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT41</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Warts</td><td>Boil and place on the wart.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Immobility in babies</td><td>Place in fire and place on the child’s feet</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Swollen stomach</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Solanum incanum</italic> L.</td><td>Katengo ntengo</td><td>H</td><td>R</td><td>FL</td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>Chew</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT49</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Swollen testicles</td><td>Pound, add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Flu</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>FR</td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td>Smear on the head</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Solanum micranthum</italic> Schltdl.</td><td rowspan="2">Katuntunu</td><td rowspan="2">H</td><td rowspan="2">L</td><td rowspan="2">F</td><td rowspan="2">Bed wetting</td><td rowspan="2">Pound leaves, mix in water and drink</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">PT27</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Irregular menstrual periods</td><td>Crush , add water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Itching vagina, Skin rash</td><td>Squeeze into the ear</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Ear infections</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Solanum nigrum</italic> L.</td><td>Nsuga nzirigavu</td><td>H</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Low immunity</td><td>Prepare as vegetable</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">PT68</td><td></td><td></td><td>S</td><td></td><td>Pain in fallopian tubes</td><td>Crush, boil & drink</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Malaria</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Drink or eat as vegetable</td></tr><tr><td>VERBENACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Lantana trifolia</italic> L.</td><td>Kayukiyuki</td><td>S</td><td>L</td><td>F</td><td>Prolapsed rectum</td><td>Pound and place on affected part</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">PT05</td><td></td><td></td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Ring worms</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Yellow fever</td><td>Pound decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Painful muscles</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bloating stomach</td><td>Pound add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Priva flabelliformis</italic> (Mold.) R. Fernand</td><td>Nkami</td><td>H</td><td>S</td><td>G</td><td>Wounds</td><td>Release the sap onto the wound</td></tr><tr><td>PT233</td><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Diarrhoea</td><td>Pound leaves add water and drink</td></tr><tr><td>VITACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4"><italic>Cyphostemma adenocaule</italic> (A. Rich) Willd & Drummond PT58</td><td>Kabombo</td><td>H</td><td>W</td><td>F</td><td>Body odour</td><td>Crush in water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Constipation</td><td>Crush in water and drink</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>L</td><td></td><td>Measles</td><td>Decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Syphilis</td><td>Crush mix with water and bathe</td></tr><tr><td>ZINGIBERACEAE</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Afromomum anguistifolium</italic> (Sonnerat) K. Schum.</td><td>Matungulu</td><td>H</td><td>R</td><td>F</td><td>Hiccup</td><td>Dry, pound, decoction drunk</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT234</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Obesity</td><td>Pound</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>FR</td><td></td><td>Low immunity</td><td>Boil the fruit and drink</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Zingber officinale</italic> Roscoe</td><td>Ntangawuzi</td><td>H</td><td>T</td><td>F/C</td><td>Cough</td><td rowspan="3">Chew and swallow or boil in tea,</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">PT235</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Backache</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>Key: Parts used: <italic>R</italic> roots, <italic>L</italic> Leaves, <italic>Fl</italic> Flowers, <italic>W</italic> whole plant, <italic>B</italic> Bark, <italic>Fr</italic> Fruit, <italic>T</italic> Tuber, <italic>S</italic> Sap, <italic>V</italic> Vine ; Habit: <italic>S</italic> Shrub, <italic>T</italic> Tree, <italic>H</italic> herb, <italic>C</italic> Climber, <italic>G</italic> grass; Habitat: <italic>F</italic> forest, <italic>FL</italic> farmland, <italic>C</italic> cultivated, <italic>W</italic> woodland, <italic>G</italic> grassland</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>A total of 190 plant species distributed in 61families and 152 genera were identified as used. Fabaceae contributed 27 species, followed by Asteraceae (17), Euphorbiaceae (13), Solanaceae (10) and Lamiaceae (9). Genera <italic>Solanum</italic> and <italic>Indigofera</italic> contributed five species each while <italic>Ficus, Vernonia,</italic> and <italic>Acacia</italic> contributed four species each.</p></sec><sec id="Sec13"><title>Preferred medicinal plant species</title><p><italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> was highly ranked and regarded most important in treatment of malaria in the study area. Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref> shows ranking of the ten most important plant species according to key informants in decreasing order together with values assigned by each informant. The key ailments treated by the preferred medicinal plants were mentioned by the key informants during the interviews.<table-wrap id="Tab2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Rank values assigned by each informant for each of the 10 preferred medicinal plants</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Medicianl plant species</th><th rowspan="2">Plant parts used</th><th rowspan="2">Key ailments treated</th><th colspan="12">Key informants (<italic>n</italic> = 12)</th><th>value/120</th><th>Rank</th></tr><tr><th>A</th><th>B</th><th>C</th><th>D</th><th>E</th><th>F</th><th>G</th><th>H</th><th>I</th><th>J</th><th>K</th><th>L</th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic></td><td>Leaves, Roots</td><td>Malaria, Convulsions, stomachache</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>120</td><td>1<sup>st</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mormodica feotida</italic></td><td>Leaves</td><td>Body odour</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>95</td><td>2<sup>nd</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Warbugia ugandensis</italic></td><td>Bark</td><td>Cough, flue</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>7</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>89</td><td>3<sup>rd</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Prunus africana</italic></td><td>Leaves, Bark</td><td>Fainting, prostate cancer</td><td>9</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>4</td><td>9</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>7</td><td>88</td><td>4<sup>th</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Piptadeniastrum africana</italic></td><td>Leaves, Bark</td><td>Cough</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>75</td><td>5<sup>th</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Erythrina abyssinica</italic></td><td>Bark</td><td>Yellow fever, convulsions, anaemia, infertility hiccup, stop vomiting</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>9</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>5</td><td>66</td><td>6<sup>th</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Albizia corriaria</italic></td><td>Bark</td><td>Cough, swollen rectum, skin rash</td><td>1</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td>50</td><td>7<sup>th</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Spathodea campanulata</italic></td><td>Leaves, Bark, roots</td><td>Pregnancy care, infertility, skin infections, hernia</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>32</td><td>8<sup>th</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mondia whitei</italic></td><td>Roots</td><td>Stimulate sexual potency, energy booster</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>24</td><td>9<sup>th</sup></td></tr><tr><td><italic>Alstonia boonei</italic></td><td>Bark</td><td>Malaria</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>21</td><td>10<sup>th</sup></td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>Key scores in the table indicate ranks given to medicinal plants based on their efficacy and availability by informants. Highest number (10) for medicinal plant which informants thought most effective in treating ailments and available and the lowest (1) for the least effective and rare. The criterion for considering key ailments was all aiments that were mentioned by informants during interviews</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec14"><title>Growth forms of Plants and parts used for medicinal purposes</title><p>Different plant parts of medicinal plants are used to make herbal preparations (Table <xref rid="Tab3" ref-type="table">3</xref>). A high number of herbal medicine are made using leaves (77 %) and roots 40 %. Other parts of the plants are not commonly used. Regarding the 10 preferred medicinal plant species, the bark was predominantly used in seven species, followed by leaves (5) and least roots (3) (Table <xref rid="Tab3" ref-type="table">3</xref> ), although more than one part was used in some cases. For instance leaves, bark and root of <italic>Spathodea campanulata</italic> and leaves, roots and fruits of <italic>Tamarindus indica and Phytolaca dodecandra</italic> are used to prepare remedies. Herbs made up the highest proportion of medicinal plants species (41 %), followed by trees (28 %), shrubs (22 %), climbers and grasses (4 %).<table-wrap id="Tab3"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Plant parts used for medicinal purposes</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Plant part used</th><th>No. of plants species (<italic>n</italic> = 190)</th><th>% use</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Leaves</td><td>147</td><td>77.4</td></tr><tr><td>Roots</td><td>75</td><td>39.5</td></tr><tr><td>Bark</td><td>31</td><td>16.3</td></tr><tr><td>Fruit</td><td>17</td><td>8.9</td></tr><tr><td>Flowers</td><td>6</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td>Whole plant</td><td>8</td><td>4.2</td></tr><tr><td>Branches</td><td>4</td><td>2.1</td></tr><tr><td>Sap</td><td>6</td><td>3.2</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>The figures are inclusive of each other</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec15"><title>Source of medicinal plants</title><p>Of the recorded medicinal plants, 56 % are from the forest, 14 % are cultivated 12 % grow in grasslands/woodlands and farmlands (18 %). The low incidence of medicinal plant gardens was attributed to the need to maintain secrecy of traditional knowledge and the argument that cultivated medicinal plants are less potent compared to plants collected from the wild and therefore the latter are preferred. Medicinal plant species from the forest were mostly members of Fabaaceae (40 %) and Euphorbiaceae (54 %) while species from family Asteraceae were dominant in grasslands (25 %) and fallow (44 %). Most of the medicinal plants grown in home gardens are introduced species and have not been domesticated. These include: <italic>Callistemon citrinus, Capsicum frutescens, Moringa oleifera</italic>, plus fruit tree species that are also medicinal such as <italic>Mangifera indica, Persea americana, Carica papaya</italic> and <italic>Psidium guajava.</italic> Fifty percent of medicinal plant users who harvest for commercial purposes collect plants form the forest.</p></sec><sec id="Sec16"><title>Methods of preparation and administration</title><p>The medicinal plants for treatment of different ailments were prepared and administered using various methods. Decoction was commonly used (29 %), followed by crushing and mixing with water (24 %), use of fresh crushed material (14 %) and burning (9 %) (Fig. <xref rid="Fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>). In the current study, additives used in herbal medicine preparation included silver fish, ash, salt, alcohol, tea and onions. Salt was used in remedies against toothache and oral wounds where it is believed to kill germs. For external application vaseline, paraffin and ghee were used to reduce friction during application of the remedy.<fig id="Fig2"><label>Fig. 2</label><caption><p>Percentage of species prepared using different methods. The figure depicts the percentage of medicinal plant species used for making herbal remedies using different methods according to information obtained from key informant interviews. The total number of species for calculation of percentages was 190. In some cases herbal remedies from the same medicinal plant species could be prepared using more than one method. The main ingredient used in preparation of herbal remedies was water in the case of decoctions and cold infusions. Method of preparation varied according to the plant species, plant part used and sometimes the condition being treated</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="13002_2015_77_Fig2_HTML" id="MO2"></graphic></fig></p><p>Different routes were used in administration of herbal preparations. Oral route contributed 61 % of the total species, followed by herbal bath (28 %), rubbing leaves on affected parts (14 %) and inhalation of smoke (5 %). The least used route of herbal administration was steam bath (2 %).</p></sec><sec id="Sec17"><title>Ailments treated by medicinal plants</title><p>The 58 health conditions recorded were grouped into 25 categories of which gynecological conditions, digestive disorders and skin infections featured prominently (Table <xref rid="Tab4" ref-type="table">4</xref>). The number of species used to treat different ailments are summarized in Table <xref rid="Tab4" ref-type="table">4</xref>.<table-wrap id="Tab4"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p>Ailment categories treated by different medicinal plants</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Ailment categories</th><th>Specific conditions</th><th>No. of species used (<italic>n</italic> = 190)</th><th>% of total species</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gynaecological issues</td><td>Heavy menstrual flows, weakness during pregnancy, increasing vaginal fluids, uterine cleansing, family planning and induction of labour.</td><td>58</td><td>30.5</td></tr><tr><td>Digestive disorders</td><td>stomachaches, blotting, ulcers, constipation, diarrhea, weight loss</td><td>54</td><td>28.4</td></tr><tr><td>Skin infections</td><td>Wounds, warts, skin rash, acne, pimples and athletes foot.</td><td>47</td><td>24.7</td></tr><tr><td>Malaria & other infections</td><td>Malaria, yellow fever, measles, toothache, ear & eye infections</td><td>43</td><td>22.6</td></tr><tr><td>Respiratory tract infections</td><td>Flue, sinuses, sore throat, cough, tuberculosis</td><td>34</td><td>17.9</td></tr><tr><td>Arthritis & inflammation</td><td>Swollen body parts, hydrocele elephantiasis. hernia, boils</td><td>23</td><td>12.1</td></tr><tr><td>Neurological & nervous system disorders</td><td>Convulsions, epilepsy, fainting</td><td>17</td><td>8.9</td></tr><tr><td>Erectile dysfunction& Impotence</td><td>Male sexual vitality</td><td>13</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td>Ailment categories</td><td>Specific conditions</td><td>No. of species used (<italic>n</italic> = 190)</td><td>% of total species</td></tr><tr><td>Childcare</td><td>Swollen rib cage, failure to walk, umbilical cord treatment, false teeth, colic pains</td><td>12</td><td>6.3</td></tr><tr><td>Poisonous animal bites</td><td>Snake and centipede bites</td><td>12</td><td>6.3</td></tr><tr><td>Hypertension</td><td>Control of heart beat</td><td>11</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td>Immune & energy boosting</td><td>Low appetite, nausea</td><td>10</td><td>5.3</td></tr><tr><td>Painful body parts</td><td>Neck, sternum pain,</td><td>10</td><td>5.3</td></tr><tr><td>Body odour</td><td>Bad breath,</td><td>9</td><td>4.7</td></tr><tr><td>Headaches & Fatigues</td><td>Migraines</td><td>6</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td></td><td>6</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td>Cancer</td><td>Prostate, skin, breast and cervical cancer</td><td>6</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td>Blood system disorders</td><td>Blood cleansing, anaemia,</td><td>5</td><td>2.6</td></tr><tr><td>Muscular skeletal problems</td><td>Back ache, joint pains, Rheumatism, shaking body, fractures</td><td>4</td><td>2.1</td></tr><tr><td>STDs & Venereal diseases</td><td>Gornorrhea, syphilis</td><td>4</td><td>2.1</td></tr><tr><td>Abnormalities</td><td>Hunchback</td><td>3</td><td>1.5</td></tr><tr><td>Hiccups</td><td></td><td>3</td><td>1.5</td></tr><tr><td>Psychiatric disorders</td><td>Madness, memory loss, night mares</td><td>2</td><td>1.1</td></tr><tr><td>Bedwetting</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>0.5</td></tr><tr><td>Stop smoking</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>0.5</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></p><p>Species treated a wide range of ailments varying from one to six per plant. Species that treated the highest number of ailments were <italic>Balanites aegyptiaca, Carica papaya, Dracaena steudneri</italic> that were used in management of six health conditions each. On the other hand <italic>Allium sativum, Cissampelos macronata, Kalanchoe crenata</italic>, <italic>Lantana trifolia, Solanum anguvi, Tagetes minuta</italic> and <italic>Vernonia lasiopus</italic> were each used in management of five health conditions. Taxonomic analysis revealed that members of family Fabaceae were used to treat the highest percentage (28 %) of ailments. This was followed by Solanaceae (24 %), Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae (19 %) each, Amaranthaceae, Balanitaceae and Rutaceae 14 % each, Anarcadiaceae, Moraceae, Poaceae, Bignoniaceae 12 % each while families Alliaceae, Caricaceae, Dracaenaceae, Lamiaceae, Minespermaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Verbenaceae and Zingiberaceae 10 % each and the rest treated less than 10 %.</p></sec><sec id="Sec18"><title>Informant consensus agreement (F<sub>ic</sub>)</title><p>This technique is designed to highlight species that have healing potential for specific major purposes. The relative importance of each plant species in treatment of different ailments as categorized in Table <xref rid="Tab5" ref-type="table">5</xref> was analysed using the Factor Informant Consensus (F<sub>ic</sub>) [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">41</xref>]. F<sub>ic</sub> values range from 0–1 where values close to one (1) indicate a high rate of informant consensus on a plant species used against an illness category. F<sub>ic</sub> values close to zero (0) mean low degree of agreement among the informants about the use of a plant species for treatment of a particular ailment. F<sub>ic</sub> for different ailment categories was calculated to test for homogeneity or consistency of informants’ knowledge about a particular remedy for an ailment category. F<sub>ic</sub> indicated which plants are widely used and thus merit further pharmacological and phytochemical studies. The highest F<sub>ic</sub> (0.9) was scored for blood system disorders. The important plants used for anaemia were <italic>Amaranthus dubius</italic> and <italic>Hibiscus acetosella</italic> while those for high blood pressure included <italic>Oxalis corniculata, Canarium schweinfurthi, Sesbania sesban, Vangueria apiculata, Citrus limon</italic> and<italic>, Solanum anguivi.</italic> Seven ailment categories had F<sub>ic</sub> of zero (0) since each respondent reported a different species used for the same ailment (Table <xref rid="Tab5" ref-type="table">5</xref>).<table-wrap id="Tab5"><label>Table 5</label><caption><p>Consensus agreement about uses of medicinal plants for ailment categories</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Ailment category</th><th>N<sub>taxa</sub></th><th>N<sub>ur</sub></th><th>F<sub>ic</sub></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Blood system disorders</td><td>11</td><td>2</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>General conditions</td><td>14</td><td>9</td><td>0.4</td></tr><tr><td>Arthritis & Inflammation</td><td>29</td><td>20</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Infection</td><td>52</td><td>36</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Neurological & nervous system disorder</td><td>16</td><td>12</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Sexually Transmitted & venereal diseases</td><td>5</td><td>4</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Skin infections</td><td>69</td><td>49</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Gastro intestinal disorders</td><td>51</td><td>40</td><td>0.2</td></tr><tr><td>Gynaecological issues</td><td>64</td><td>50</td><td>0.2</td></tr><tr><td>Respiratory tract infections</td><td>34</td><td>27</td><td>0.2</td></tr><tr><td>Erectile dysfunction, prostate cancer</td><td>15</td><td>12</td><td>0.2</td></tr><tr><td>Immune & energy boosting</td><td>12</td><td>10</td><td>0.2</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>0.2</td></tr><tr><td>Headaches and fatigue</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>0.1</td></tr><tr><td>Painful body parts</td><td>4</td><td>4</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Childcare</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Muscular skeletal</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Abnormalities</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Psychiatric disorders</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Body odour</td><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Poisonous animal bites</td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>A taxa may fall in more than one ailment categories</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>Key: N<sub>taxa</sub> - Number of species in each use category</p><p>N<sub>ur</sub> - Number of use reports, F<sub>ic</sub> - Informant consensus factor</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec19"><title>Fidelity Levels (FL) of preferred plant species</title><p>For each of the 10 most preferred plant species a fidelity level (Table <xref rid="Tab6" ref-type="table">6</xref>) was calculated to quantify their importance to treat a major ailment [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">42</xref>]. It was calculated based on the number of users of a given plant species to treat a major ailment. FL shows the proportion in percentage of informants claiming the use of a plant species for the same major ailment to the total number of informants who mention the plant for any use. FL = (I<sub>p</sub>/ I<sub>u</sub>) x 100 where I<sub>p</sub> = Number of informants who suggested the use of a species for the same major purpose (therapeutic use), (I<sub>u</sub>) = Total number of informants who mentioned the plant species for any use.<table-wrap id="Tab6"><label>Table 6</label><caption><p>Fidelity Levels (FL) of most commonly used plants by Key Informants</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Plant species</th><th>Therapeutic uses</th><th>I<sub>p</sub></th><th>I<sub>u</sub></th><th>FL%</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic></td><td>Malaria</td><td>36</td><td>36</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mormodica feotida</italic></td><td>Malaria</td><td>31</td><td>36</td><td>86</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Warburgia ugandensis</italic></td><td>cough</td><td>11</td><td>28</td><td>39</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Prunus africana</italic></td><td>Prostate cancer</td><td>3</td><td>7</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Erythrina abyssinica</italic></td><td>Vomiting</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Piptadeniastrum africana</italic></td><td>Cough</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>89</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Albizia coriaria</italic></td><td>Skin infections</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>80</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Spathodea campunulata</italic>.</td><td>vaginal lubrication</td><td>4</td><td>8</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mondia whitei</italic></td><td>Erectile dysfunction</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>86</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Alstonia boonei</italic></td><td>Prostate cancer</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>75</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>Key: I<sub>p</sub> - Number of informants who suggested the use of a species for the same major ailment</p><p>I<sub>u</sub> - Total number of informants who mentioned the species for any use</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>Table <xref rid="Tab6" ref-type="table">6</xref> shows high fidelity levels of greater than 50 % for seven plant species which highlights the importance of these species in treatment of the mentioned diseases in the study area. <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> and <italic>Erythrina abyssinica</italic> had a fidelity level of 100 % in treatment of malaria and vomiting respectively. High FL levels for these species indicated their outstanding preference for treating malaria and vomiting.</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec20"><title>Discussion</title><sec id="Sec21"><title>Characteristics of respondents</title><p>Most of the respondents were men with an average age of 52 years. African belief is that traditional healers should be male [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR43">43</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR45">45</xref>]. A high proportion of key informants being male of 50 years and above is in line with studies in Rwanda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR46">46</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR47">47</xref>]. Old people (aged 51–80 years) in society have more knowledge on medicinal plants and their uses due to long direct contact with plant resources. In contrast, younger people have little interest in traditional medicine in general and there appears to be a risk of knowledge loss if nothing is done to motivate them. Younger people are exposed to modern education and hence not interested in learning and practicing ethnomedicinal wisdom that would perpetuate indigenous knowledge. Differences in medicinal plants knowledge among age groups was also reported in other studies [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR48">48</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR49">49</xref>] in Ethiopia.</p></sec><sec id="Sec22"><title>Diversity of medicinal plants</title><p>The high number of species documented indicates that the study area has diverse flora used in treatment of various ailments and rich traditional knowledge on medicinal plants in the community. This makes Mabira CFR an important source of herbal medicine for the rural communities since more than half of the mentioned medicinal plants were harvested from the forest. High utilisation of medicinal plant species from forests has been reported among the Bakonjo and Bamba in Mt. Rwenzori and Semiliki forest areas in Bundibugyo, Western Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">50</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR51">51</xref>].</p><p>Families Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Solanaceae are widely reported in herbal preparations in different parts of Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">52</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">53</xref>] and their widespread use could be attributed to their wide range of bioactive compounds. Asteraceae is reported to have a large number of bioactive compounds [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR54">54</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR55">55</xref>] thus contributing to the high utilization rates of members of the family for medicinal purposes.</p><p>A majority of plant species documented treated more than one condition. The use of one plant to treat several ailments is probably attributed to presence of many metabolites in one particular plant and also the fact that the same molecule can be active against different pathogens. In other instances a combination of plants were used in preparation of a herbal remedy against a certain ailment which illustrates the synergistic effects of such plants. As an example <italic>Amaranthus spinosus</italic> and <italic>Cleome gynandra</italic> leaves were used against fungal infections of the scalp, <italic>Balanites aegyptica</italic> roots are mixed with leaves of <italic>Citrus limon</italic> against diarrhoea. On the other hand some remedies were monotherapies based on preparations from a single plant. Such plants could be palatable, nontoxic and highly effective against ailments they are used to treat based on experience of users.</p><p>Most of the medicinal plant species collected and identified in the study area were also medically used in other areas of Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR56">56</xref>] and other parts of Africa [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">57</xref>] to treat the same or different ailments. The use of the same plant species for similar or different ethnomedicinal uses in different countries is a reliable indication of the bioactivity potential of the documented plant species [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR58">58</xref>]. Of the 190 medicinal plant species identified in the current study, 34 species were identified earlier in Iganga Eastern Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR59">59</xref>], 82 species in Mukono and Mabira forest areas [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR60">60</xref>], 22 species in Western Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>], 40 species in Mpigi [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">52</xref>] and 30 species in Oyam Northern Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>]. A comparison of ethomedicinal uses of some plant species used in Mabira CFR communities with other parts of Uganda and in other countries is presented in Table <xref rid="Tab7" ref-type="table">7</xref>. Bioactivity studies previously conducted on some of the identified plant species collaborate their ethnobotanical uses. For instance <italic>Capsicum frutescens</italic> is used in management of different cancers – an activity attributed to presence of capsaicin which possesses antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activities [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR61">61</xref>]. Also <italic>Prunus africana</italic> has been found to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activities and compounds like cytotoxic phenolics and beta sitostenone, n-docosanol [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR62">62</xref>] which are important in management of cancer. The ethnomedicinal reports of the same plant species across geographical regions and different cultural groups is indicative of the medicinal properties of the species.<table-wrap id="Tab7"><label>Table 7</label><caption><p>Relevant literature on previous ethnomedical uses of some medicinal plant species in the current study</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th>Medicinal plant species</th><th>Ailments treated in current study</th><th>Previous reports of ethnomedical uses</th><th>Country of previous use</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="5"><italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic></td><td rowspan="5">Malaria</td><td>Malaria</td><td>Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR63">63</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR101">101</xref>], Ghana [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR98">98</xref>], Cameroon [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR102">102</xref>], Democratic Republic of Congo(DRC) [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR103">103</xref>], Rwanda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR104">104</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td>Wounds</td><td>Nigeria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR105">105</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td>Skin rashes, diarrhoea, herpes zoster, cryptococcal meningitis</td><td>Tanzania [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR106">106</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td>Infertility, amenorrhea</td><td>South Africa [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR107">107</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td>Tonsolitis</td><td>Ethiopia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR108">108</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Ageratum conyzoides</italic></td><td>Uterine pains, helminth infections</td><td>Splenomegaly, colic pains, wounds</td><td>Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Vernonia lasiopus</italic></td><td>Malaria, stomachaches</td><td>Skin allergy, constipation</td><td>Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Cleome gynandra</italic></td><td>Prolonged labour</td><td>Convulsions, diphtheria, toothaches, peptic ulcers, vomiting</td><td>Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Aloe vera</italic></td><td>Malaria</td><td>Wounds</td><td>Kenya [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR96">96</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Prunus africana</italic></td><td>Enlarged prostate</td><td>Prostate and breast cancers, Hypertension</td><td>Kenya [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR96">96</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR109">109</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Capscum frutescens</italic></td><td>Prostate cancer</td><td>Throat, breast and squamous cell carcinoma</td><td>Kenya [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR109">109</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Amaranthus spinosus</italic></td><td>Scalp fungal infections</td><td>Haemorrhoids</td><td>Nigeria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">57</xref>]</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Mangifera indica</italic></td><td>Cough, infertility, convulsions</td><td>Haemorrhoids</td><td>Nigeria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">57</xref>]</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec23"><title>Plant parts used</title><p>The use of leaves to make herbal medicine preparations followed by roots and barks is a common practice in many communities in Uganda as reported in Mukono [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR60">60</xref>], Sango bay in Southern Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>], Western Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>], communities around Kibale National Park [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR63">63</xref>], Mpigi [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">52</xref>] and other countries like Kenya [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR64">64</xref>], Ethiopia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">65</xref>] and Bolivia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR66">66</xref>]. The high utilisation rates of leaves could be attributed to the ease with which they can be obtained in large quantities compared to other plant parts. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organ in plants and considered to be a key component of the natural pharmacy for synthesis of constituents particularly those that are more pharmacologically active against diseases [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR67">67</xref>]. The preference of leaves to other plant parts is thus thought to be due to accumulation of active ingredients like tannins and other alkaloids [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR67">67</xref>]. In contrast, in Oyam district of Northern Uganda, roots were the common plant parts used in herbal medicine preparations and the other parts were underutilized [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>]. However, as noted [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR68">68</xref>] a clear relationship exists between the parts of the plant collected, or the collection method and the impact on the harvested plant. Collection of the bark and root is damaging and makes species vulnerable to overexploitation. Harvesting the bark in large quantities can destroy the plant because the protective role of the bark to the plant will be curtailed. On the other hand uprooting plants especially in case of herbs and shrubs causes total destruction of the plant. Debarking and uprooting of medicinal plant species negatively affects the sustainability of the species in use. For species like <italic>Spathodea campanulata, Tamarindus indica</italic> and <italic>Phytolaca dodecandra</italic> in which more than one parts is used; sustainability would probably be achieved if the harvesting of bark and root is avoided and harvesting of leaves which is less destructive is promoted. The use of leaves is less destructive if small quantities are collected but not so if large quantities are harvested. As noted [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR69">69</xref>], overharvesting of leaves can lead to deterioration of medicinal plants since removal of leaves limits the transformation of vegetative to reproductive development such as flower production and seed/fruit development which in turn limits the natural regeneration of plants. Harvesting of roots on the other hand is more destructive as it often involves uprooting whole plants which consequently affects regeneration for sustainable use.</p><p>Herbal preparations made from more than two plant parts of the same plant such as the bark and roots of <italic>Psedospondias microcarpa,</italic> leaves, bark and roots of <italic>Spathodea camapnulata</italic> and the leaves, roots and vines of <italic>Croton macrostachyus</italic> (Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>) may endanger the species unless mechanisms for sustainable utilisation are put in place. Many studies have showed that leaves of different plants possess bioactive ingredients against different diseases and pathogens [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR69">69</xref>–<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR72">72</xref>]. Since harvesting of leaves is less destructive than harvesting roots or barks, it is necessary to test leaves for efficacy against different ailments in plants where roots and barks are mostly harvested to minimize dangers of overexploitation. As an example the leaves of <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> have been found to be effective against malaria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR73">73</xref>] and thus the harvesting of roots of this species can be avoided.</p></sec><sec id="Sec24"><title>Habit of medicinal plant species</title><p>Herbs were the most common plant life forms used for medicinal purposes. Harvesting of herbs that are in most cases annual is an indicator that collection of medicinal plants from the forest is not a big threat to conservation. This could be attributed to their abundance throughout the year as reported previously in Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">15</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">53</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR63">63</xref>] although shrubs were reported to be commonly used in northern Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR12">12</xref>] and in Ethiopia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR74">74</xref>]. The popularity of herbs as a source of herbal therapies is often attributed to their high pharmacologically active ingredients as compared to woody plants [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>]. Shrubs are preferred due to their availability all year round since they are relatively draught resistant and are not affected by seasonal variations [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">65</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="Sec25"><title>Source of medicinal plants</title><p>Traditional healers interviewed lacked medicinal plant gardens and collected medicinal plants from the forest. A similar trend was reported in Zimbabwe [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR75">75</xref>] but cultivated plants have been used from ancient times such as in Iran and various studies have confirmed potency of chemical constituents in them [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">14</xref>]. However, commercial collectors require large volumes which put pressure on the plant population. Consequently, overexploitation may lead to disappearance of many species of economic value and other uses pausing challenges to their conservation in Uganda’s forests [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR76">76</xref>] and the African continent as a whole [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR77">77</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="Sec26"><title>Herbal medicine preparation and administration</title><p>The main route of herbal medicine administration was oral. This mode of administration is commonly used in many herbal remedies as reported elsewhere [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR78">78</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR79">79</xref>]. The choice of oral administration may be related to the use of some solvents or additives such as water and food that are commonly believed to serve as a vehicle to transport the remedies. The additives enhance extraction of bioactive molecules during remedy preparation. The additives are also important to minimize discomfort, improve taste and reduce adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhoea. [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR80">80</xref>] Decoctions were cited as the most common method of preparation of herbal remedies. Boiling is effective in extracting plant materials and at the same time preserves the herbal remedies for a longer period compared to cold extraction. However, both decoctions and cold extracts do not offer long shelf life for the preparations [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR81">81</xref>]. As such users continuously harvest medicinal plants which puts them under a lot of pressure that may lead to over exploitation.</p></sec><sec id="Sec27"><title>Health conditions treated</title><p>Herbal therapies are still preferred in primary health care in Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR79">79</xref>] and the world [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">4</xref>]. The use of many herbal remedies for treatment of different ailments has been reported in other studies in Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">53</xref>] and other countries like India [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR82">82</xref>] and Ethiopia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR65">65</xref>]. Thus the diversity of medicinal plants used meet the varied health care needs of communities of Mabira CFR since many people cannot afford conventional treatment due to wide spread poverty. The high frequency in treatment of gynaecological conditions, digestive disorders and skin infections indicate high prevalence of these ailment categories in the study area. Other ailment categories were not commonly treated implying their low prevalence or limited traditional knowledge in the use of medicinal plants to treat them.</p></sec><sec id="Sec28"><title>Informant consensus agreement</title><p>Blood system disorders had the highest informant consensus value (F<sub>ic</sub> =0.9). High F<sub>ic</sub> values are obtained when only one or a few plant species are reported to be used by a high proportion of informants to treat a particular ailment whereas low F<sub>ic</sub> values indicate that informants disagree over which plant to use [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR83">83</xref>]. The high F<sub>ic</sub> for blood system disorders indicates agreement among respondents on the different plant species used to manage them as well as their significance. Within this category the main condition treated was hypertension (high blood pressure). The prevalence of hypertension was confirmed in a third of adults in Mukono district [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR84">84</xref>]. The respondents attributed this to age and obesity. A study on screening of bioactive constituents of <italic>Solanum anguivi</italic> fruits which was mentioned as one of the remedies against high blood pressure revealed a lot of bioactive phytochemicals which include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, triterpenoids and phenols. The phenols have the ability to retard lipid oxidation in oils and fatty foods [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR85">85</xref>] thereby reducing cardiovascular diseases. The low F<sub>ic</sub> value of zero (0) in the following ailment categories; painful body parts, Childcare, muscular skeletal pains, abnormalities, body odour, psychiatric disorders and poisonous animal bites imply lack of agreement in the plant species used in treatment of such ailments. F<sub>ic</sub> values close to zero that are indicative of low informant agreement [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR86">86</xref>] could be attributed to use of same species for many ailments in the community.</p></sec><sec id="Sec29"><title>Fidelity level</title><p><italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> had a fidelity level of 100 % and ranked highest in the treatment of malaria as had been documented in other parts of Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR56">56</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR63">63</xref>]. Its leaf extract has been confirmed for having good anti-malarial effects [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR87">87</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR88">88</xref>] and through in vitro studies [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR88">88</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR89">89</xref>]. <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> contains steroid glycosides, sesquiterpene and lactones which are active against <italic>Plasmodium falciparum</italic> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR90">90</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR91">91</xref>]. This species has also been found to be clinically effective for the treatment of malaria patients [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR92">92</xref>]. In human trials, extracts of <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> reduced parastaemia by 32 % [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR93">93</xref>]. Although <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> is effective for malaria treatment, it can induce labour in pregnant women [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>] thus causing miscarriages and therefore should be avoided by them. Species with high fidelity level [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR94">94</xref>] such as <italic>Vernonia amygdalina</italic> for malaria and <italic>Erythrina abyssinica</italic> for vomiting indicates that these species two were considered of great cultural significance. <italic>Erythrina abyssinica</italic> too has a wide range of use varying from treatment of malaria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR95">95</xref>], syphilis [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>], tuberculosis [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">52</xref>] to amoebiasis [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>] in Uganda. In Kenya <italic>E. abyssinica</italic> is used to treat mumps [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR96">96</xref>], respiratory tract infections in Mexico [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR97">97</xref>] and febrile illness in Ethiopia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR49">49</xref>]. Its usage for different ailments is possibly due to a wide range of bioactive compounds [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR95">95</xref>].</p><p>Besides malaria, <italic>V. amygdalina</italic> has been used in Uganda to treat various diseases. A decoction from its roots and leaves is used to treat syphilis, ulcers, liver problems [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>], its stem bark is used to treat tuberculosis [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">52</xref>] and its roots are used to treat cough, abdominal pain, wounds, hernia and headache [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>]. The use of <italic>V. amygdalina</italic> leaves was reported to treat heamorrhoids [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">57</xref>] in Nigeria, malaria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR98">98</xref>] in Ghana and in Ethiopia against bloating, dandruff and impotency [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR49">49</xref>]. The 100 % choice by key informants of using <italic>V. amygdalina</italic> and <italic>E. abyssinca</italic> for treatment of malaria and vomiting is an indicator of the healing potential of these plant species [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR99">99</xref>]. These results point to the great potential of <italic>V. amygdalina</italic> and <italic>E. abyssinica</italic> for use as sources of new drugs for treatment against malaria and vomiting.</p><p>Other species that were preferred in this study were also medicinally important in other areas against the same or different ailments. The use of the same species in different areas against the same ailment confirms the confidence users have in herbal remedies. <italic>Momordica feotida</italic> was used in Uganda to treat sexually transmitted infections and abdominal pain [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>], cough [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR56">56</xref>] and its roots were effective against erectile dysfunction [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">3</xref>]. The stem bark of <italic>Warburgia ugandensis</italic> was effective against tuberculosis in Mpigi while both its roots and bark treated erectile dysfunction in Western Uganda [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">3</xref>]. However, leaves of the same plant were used in Kenya to treat common cold and sore throat [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR96">96</xref>]. <italic>Alstonia boonei</italic> treated haemorrhoids in Nigeria [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">57</xref>]. The wide spread reporting on the use of these medicinal plants by different communities in different localities could be attributed to different cultural groups which could validate medicinal properties of these species and confirms the confidence users have in the remedies.</p><p>The low citation of <italic>Prunus africana</italic> against prostate cancer reflects lack of awareness about the symptoms of the disease, the facts that it is specific to men of a specific age category, the fact that not all men gate prostate cancer and that diagnosis of prostate cancer is not done. It also indicates limited sharing of knowledge about the disease in the study area.</p><p>According to [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR100">100</xref>], plant species with high fidelity level values are considered potential candidates for further pharmacological investigations and deserve priority attention.</p><p>Results from computations of F<sub>ic</sub> and FL do not collaborate each other since they measure different values but also the diseases treated were grouped in categories and no single disease was considered alone in the F<sub>ic</sub> calculations. This is due to the different formulae used to calculate the two values. FL was calculated based use reports of a plant species to treat an ailment yet F<sub>ic</sub> was calculated based on consensus among informants for use of plant species to treat different diseases in an ailment category. However, FL values corroborated well with ranking of preferred species.</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec30"><title>Conclusions</title><p>The study shows that Mabira CFR habours a wide diversity of plant species used as remedies for several ailments. Such plants are very useful especially to people who cannot afford modern medical care and in cases where access to modern heath facilities is not easy. Knowledge and use of herbal medicine for treatment of various ailments among the local people is still part of their life and culture and this calls for preservation of the integrity of the forest and indigenous knowledge of herbal medicine use. The documented plants have potential of being used in drug development.</p><sec id="Sec31"><title>Ethics and approval of the study</title><p>Ethical approval of the study was obtained from the Uganda National Council of Science and Technology (UNCST) under registration number SS 3368 after obtaining a research license from National forestry Authority (NFA).</p></sec><sec id="Sec32"><title>Consent for publication</title><p>Not applicable.</p></sec></sec></body><back><glossary><title>Abbreviations</title><def-list><def-item><term>CFR</term><def><p>Central Forest Reserve</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>FL</term><def><p>Fidelity level</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>F<sub>ic</sub></term><def><p>Informant Consensus factor</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>NFA</term><def><p>National Forestry Authority</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>RRA</term><def><p>Rapid Rural Appraisal</p></def></def-item><def-item><term>UNCST</term><def><p>Uganda National Council of Science and Technology</p></def></def-item></def-list></glossary><fn-group><fn><p><bold>Competing interests</bold></p><p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p></fn><fn><p><bold>Author’s contributions</bold></p><p>PT conceptualized the study, designed the methods, conducted the ethnobotanical survey, analysed the data and drafted the manuscript. EKK and BM conceptualized the idea of this manuscript and participated in reviewing the manuscript. JM, MK, PM and JK reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p></fn></fn-group><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>We are greatly indebted to African Development Bank who provided funds for fieldwork. We wish to thank the traditional healers and local people that provided information. We appreciate the Uganda National Council of Science and Technology (UNCST) for granting us permission to carry out this study and the National Forestry Authority for allowing us to collect samples from the forest. We wish to thank our forest guides Mr. Abdu Kasozi, Mr. Sekabira Samuel and Mr. Kizito Isaac and research Assistant Ms Catherine Twesiime. 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