The Properties of Terrestrial Laser System Intensity for Measuring Leaf Geometries: A Case Study with Conference Pear Trees (Pyrus Communis)
Identifieur interne : 000244 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 000243; suivant : 000245The Properties of Terrestrial Laser System Intensity for Measuring Leaf Geometries: A Case Study with Conference Pear Trees (Pyrus Communis)
Auteurs : Mathilde A. F. Balduzzi [Belgique] ; Dimitry Van Der Zande [Belgique] ; Jan Stuckens [Belgique] ; Willem W. Verstraeten [Pays-Bas] ; Pol Coppin [Belgique]Source :
- Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) [ 1424-8220 ] ; 2011.
Abstract
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology can be a valuable tool for describing and quantifying vegetation structure. However, because of their size, extraction of leaf geometries remains complicated. In this study, the intensity data produced by the Terrestrial Laser System (TLS) FARO LS880 is corrected for the distance effect and its relationship with the angle of incidence between the laser beam and the surface of the leaf of a Conference Pear tree (
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DOI: 10.3390/s110201657
PubMed: 22319374
PubMed Central: 3274019
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">The Properties of Terrestrial Laser System Intensity for Measuring Leaf Geometries: A Case Study with Conference Pear Trees (<italic>Pyrus Communis</italic>)</title><author><name sortKey="Balduzzi, Mathilde A F" sort="Balduzzi, Mathilde A F" uniqKey="Balduzzi M" first="Mathilde A. F." last="Balduzzi">Mathilde A. F. Balduzzi</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Zande, Dimitry" sort="Van Der Zande, Dimitry" uniqKey="Van Der Zande D" first="Dimitry" last="Van Der Zande">Dimitry Van Der Zande</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-11-01657"> Department VI of the Royal, Management Unit of the North Sea Mathematical Model (MUMM), Belgium Institute of Natural Science, Rue Vautier, 1000 Brussel, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Department VI of the Royal, Management Unit of the North Sea Mathematical Model (MUMM), Belgium Institute of Natural Science, Rue Vautier, 1000 Brussel</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Stuckens, Jan" sort="Stuckens, Jan" uniqKey="Stuckens J" first="Jan" last="Stuckens">Jan Stuckens</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af5-sensors-11-01657"> GeoID, Researchpark Haasrode, Interleuvenlaan 62, 3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> GeoID, Researchpark Haasrode, Interleuvenlaan 62, 3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Verstraeten, Willem W" sort="Verstraeten, Willem W" uniqKey="Verstraeten W" first="Willem W." last="Verstraeten">Willem W. Verstraeten</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af3-sensors-11-01657"> Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Climate Observations, PO Box 201, NL-3730 AE, De Bilt, The Netherlands</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea> Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Climate Observations, PO Box 201, NL-3730 AE, De Bilt</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af4-sensors-11-01657"> Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea> Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Coppin, Pol" sort="Coppin, Pol" uniqKey="Coppin P" first="Pol" last="Coppin">Pol Coppin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">22319374</idno><idno type="pmc">3274019</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3274019</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3274019</idno><idno type="doi">10.3390/s110201657</idno><date when="2011">2011</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000244</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000244</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">000244</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Curation">000244</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">The Properties of Terrestrial Laser System Intensity for Measuring Leaf Geometries: A Case Study with Conference Pear Trees (<italic>Pyrus Communis</italic>)</title><author><name sortKey="Balduzzi, Mathilde A F" sort="Balduzzi, Mathilde A F" uniqKey="Balduzzi M" first="Mathilde A. F." last="Balduzzi">Mathilde A. F. Balduzzi</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Zande, Dimitry" sort="Van Der Zande, Dimitry" uniqKey="Van Der Zande D" first="Dimitry" last="Van Der Zande">Dimitry Van Der Zande</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af2-sensors-11-01657"> Department VI of the Royal, Management Unit of the North Sea Mathematical Model (MUMM), Belgium Institute of Natural Science, Rue Vautier, 1000 Brussel, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Department VI of the Royal, Management Unit of the North Sea Mathematical Model (MUMM), Belgium Institute of Natural Science, Rue Vautier, 1000 Brussel</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Stuckens, Jan" sort="Stuckens, Jan" uniqKey="Stuckens J" first="Jan" last="Stuckens">Jan Stuckens</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af5-sensors-11-01657"> GeoID, Researchpark Haasrode, Interleuvenlaan 62, 3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> GeoID, Researchpark Haasrode, Interleuvenlaan 62, 3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Verstraeten, Willem W" sort="Verstraeten, Willem W" uniqKey="Verstraeten W" first="Willem W." last="Verstraeten">Willem W. Verstraeten</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af3-sensors-11-01657"> Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Climate Observations, PO Box 201, NL-3730 AE, De Bilt, The Netherlands</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea> Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Climate Observations, PO Box 201, NL-3730 AE, De Bilt</wicri:regionArea></affiliation><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af4-sensors-11-01657"> Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea> Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Coppin, Pol" sort="Coppin, Pol" uniqKey="Coppin P" first="Pol" last="Coppin">Pol Coppin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country><wicri:regionArea> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</title><idno type="eISSN">1424-8220</idno><imprint><date when="2011">2011</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology can be a valuable tool for describing and quantifying vegetation structure. However, because of their size, extraction of leaf geometries remains complicated. In this study, the intensity data produced by the Terrestrial Laser System (TLS) FARO LS880 is corrected for the distance effect and its relationship with the angle of incidence between the laser beam and the surface of the leaf of a Conference Pear tree (<italic>Pyrus Commmunis</italic>) is established. The results demonstrate that with only intensity, this relationship has a potential for determining the angle of incidence with the leaves surface with a precision of ±5° for an angle of incidence smaller than 60°, whereas it is more variable for an angle of incidence larger than 60°. It appears that TLS beam footprint, leaf curvatures and leaf wrinkles have an impact on the relationship between intensity and angle of incidence, though, this analysis shows that the intensity of scanned leaves has a potential to eliminate ghost points and to improve their meshing.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Fitzjarrald, D" uniqKey="Fitzjarrald D">D. Fitzjarrald</name></author><author><name sortKey="Moore, K" uniqKey="Moore K">K. Moore</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Macarthur, R" uniqKey="Macarthur R">R. MacArthur</name></author><author><name sortKey="Macarthur, J" uniqKey="Macarthur J">J. MacArthur</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Erdelen, M" uniqKey="Erdelen M">M. Erdelen</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Bradbury, R" uniqKey="Bradbury R">R. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Sensors (Basel)</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1424-8220</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Molecular Diversity Preservation International (MDPI)</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">22319374</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3274019</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/s110201657</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">sensors-11-01657</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>The Properties of Terrestrial Laser System Intensity for Measuring Leaf Geometries: A Case Study with Conference Pear Trees (<italic>Pyrus Communis</italic>)</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Balduzzi</surname><given-names>Mathilde A.F.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-11-01657"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-sensors-11-01657">*</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Van der Zande</surname><given-names>Dimitry</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-11-01657"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-sensors-11-01657"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Stuckens</surname><given-names>Jan</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-11-01657"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af5-sensors-11-01657"><sup>5</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Verstraeten</surname><given-names>Willem W.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af3-sensors-11-01657"><sup>3</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af4-sensors-11-01657"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Coppin</surname><given-names>Pol</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-sensors-11-01657"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="af1-sensors-11-01657"><label>1</label> Biosystem Department, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, M3-BIORES Willem de Croylaan 34, BE-3001 Leuven, Belgium</aff><aff id="af2-sensors-11-01657"><label>2</label> Department VI of the Royal, Management Unit of the North Sea Mathematical Model (MUMM), Belgium Institute of Natural Science, Rue Vautier, 1000 Brussel, Belgium</aff><aff id="af3-sensors-11-01657"><label>3</label> Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Climate Observations, PO Box 201, NL-3730 AE, De Bilt, The Netherlands</aff><aff id="af4-sensors-11-01657"><label>4</label> Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands</aff><aff id="af5-sensors-11-01657"><label>5</label> GeoID, Researchpark Haasrode, Interleuvenlaan 62, 3001 Leuven, Belgium</aff><author-notes><corresp id="c1-sensors-11-01657"><label>*</label> Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: <email>Mathilde.Balduzzi@biw.kuleuven.be</email>; Tel.: +32-16-329-749; Fax: +32-16-329-760.</corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2011</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>28</day><month>1</month><year>2011</year></pub-date><volume>11</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>1657</fpage><lpage>1681</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>29</day><month>12</month><year>2010</year></date><date date-type="rev-recd"><day>14</day><month>1</month><year>2011</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>25</day><month>1</month><year>2011</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2011 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2011</copyright-year><license><license-p><pmc-comment>CREATIVE COMMONS</pmc-comment>This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/</ext-link>).</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology can be a valuable tool for describing and quantifying vegetation structure. However, because of their size, extraction of leaf geometries remains complicated. In this study, the intensity data produced by the Terrestrial Laser System (TLS) FARO LS880 is corrected for the distance effect and its relationship with the angle of incidence between the laser beam and the surface of the leaf of a Conference Pear tree (<italic>Pyrus Commmunis</italic>) is established. The results demonstrate that with only intensity, this relationship has a potential for determining the angle of incidence with the leaves surface with a precision of ±5° for an angle of incidence smaller than 60°, whereas it is more variable for an angle of incidence larger than 60°. It appears that TLS beam footprint, leaf curvatures and leaf wrinkles have an impact on the relationship between intensity and angle of incidence, though, this analysis shows that the intensity of scanned leaves has a potential to eliminate ghost points and to improve their meshing.</p></abstract><kwd-group><kwd>leaf inclination</kwd><kwd>leaf geometries</kwd><kwd>intensity return</kwd><kwd>TLS</kwd><kwd>Ghost point</kwd><kwd>mesh</kwd><kwd>conference pear tree</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="f1-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p>The goniometric platform with its (<bold>a</bold>) azimuth; (<bold>b</bold>) elevation and (<bold>c</bold>) rolling angle protractors. To be flattened, half adaxial and abaxial leaf faces are fixed with black strings.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f1"></graphic></fig><fig id="f2-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p>Part of a hemispherical projection of a TLS scan of 15 two years old pear trees (first row). The corrected intensity and angle of incidence relationship is tested on leaves of those trees. Trees are grouped by their distance to the beam aperture (red frames).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f2"></graphic></fig><fig id="f3-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 3.</label><caption><p>Analysis flowchart: (I) A semi-automatic and manual selection in the point cloud is proceeded. It takes into account a distance and an intensity threshold to limit unwanted point as ghost point or leaf curvature. (II) The average distance and average intensity are calculated from the selected point cloud. Their relationship is used to correct the distance effect by replacing the intensity value by a reference value (correction of the distance effect on the intensity). (III) The angle of incidence with the selected surface is calculated thanks to a LSR. (IV) The corrected intensities values of the selected points are averaged. The angle of incidence is then related to this averaged corrected intensity.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f3"></graphic></fig><fig id="f4-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 4.</label><caption><p>Intensity and distance relationship for the FARO LS880 for different materials placed perpendicularly to the laser beam.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f4"></graphic></fig><fig id="f5-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 5.</label><caption><p>Correction of the distance effect on the intensity. The correction is valuable for distance greater than 1 m. The reference distance is 3.56 m.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f5"></graphic></fig><fig id="f6-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 6.</label><caption><p>Corrected intensity and angle of incidence relationship for pear tree leaves placed on the goniometric platform. (•) is the average intensity of the selected point cloud representing the leaf. A fourth degree polynomial fitting is made to model this relationship (bold line). The angles of incidence is found by the LSR on the selected point cloud.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f6"></graphic></fig><fig id="f7-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 7.</label><caption><p>TLS beam footprint diameter as a function of angle of incidence and distance. This beam footprint diameter is compared to the average leaf widths and lengths.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f7"></graphic></fig><fig id="f8-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 8.</label><caption><p>Test of relationship between intensity and angle of incidence for leaves of <italic>in-situ</italic> pear trees. The bold line represents the reference curve established with the leaves on the goniometric platform.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f8"></graphic></fig><fig id="f9-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Figure 9.</label><caption><p><bold>(a)</bold> Selection of seven leaves on tree n°9; <bold>(b)</bold> The figures shows the leaves as they appear to the TLS (up) and their side view (down). Δ ω is plotted (Colors). X, Y and Z are the points coordinates in the scan (m); <bold>(c)</bold> Distribution (normalized) of Δ ω and difference between the angle of incidence provided by the LSR on the entire leaf and the intensity VS angle of incidence relationship (caption). Three groups are emphasized depending on the shape of the distribution: (blue) two peaks, (red) centered but stopped at ∼+20°, (green) positive shift.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f9a"></graphic><graphic xlink:href="sensors-11-01657f9b"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="t1-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Table 1.</label><caption><p>Feature provided by the TLS FARO LS 880 constructor.</p></caption><table frame="box" rules="cols"><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Measurement principle</bold></td><td align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Continuous wave phase shift</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Field Of View (vertical x horizontal)</bold></td><td align="left" valign="top" rowspan="1" colspan="1">320° × 360°</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Wavelength</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">785 nm (Near Infra-Red)</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Diameter beam aperture</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 mm, circular</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Beam divergence</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.014°</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Sensor FOV</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 mrad</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Angle resolution used in this publication</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.018°</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Range</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.6 m–76 m</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>System distance error (Accuracy)</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">±3 mm at 25 m</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold> Repeatability at 10 m (Precision)</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(RMS for filtered / raw data)</bold></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>90 % reflectance</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.7/2.6 mm</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>10% reflectance</bold></td><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.3/5.2 mm</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t2-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Table 2.</label><caption><p>(i) Vertical translation (average on the distance) between the intensity value of the 99%-Spectralon® and the intensity value of other materials, (iii) Raw value at the reference distance (3.56 m), (iv) RMSE between the interpolation function f<sub>99%</sub> of the 99%-Spectralon® intensity (minus a constant, at the reference distance) and the measured intensity for distance larger than 1 m. Raw values range between 0 and 2047.</p></caption><table frame="box" rules="cols"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(i) Shift average (Raw value)</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(ii) Standard deviation (Raw value)</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(iii) Raw value at 3.56m</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>(iv) RMSE (corrected intensity)</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>83%Canson®</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30.24</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.90</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1749</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.98</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>80%Canson®</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">27.84</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.88</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1750</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.50</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>68%Canson®</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">79.07</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.76</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1705</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.60</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>48%Canson®</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">169.55</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.36</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1619</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.66</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>22%GreyCard</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">399.30</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">29.87</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1408</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11.49</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3%Canson®</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">884.93</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">49.66</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">839</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21.52</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>3%Paint</bold></td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">961.55</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">34.09</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">935</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11.49</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t3-sensors-11-01657" position="float"><label>Table 3.</label><caption><p>Distances of the point cloud sub-selections for each of the 15 trees and their number of sub-selections that have been made for the LSR plane fitting. The increase of the distance increases the difficulty to make a correct LSR (no extraction is possible for tree n°15). Trees are grouped by their distances to the beam aperture (>1 m).</p></caption><table frame="box" rules="cols"><thead><tr><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Tree n°</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Min. dist. (m)</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>Max. dist. (m)</bold></th><th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold># data</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="bottom" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><hr></hr></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1–5</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.92</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.30</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">26</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.43</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.22</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">21</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.83</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.52</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">50</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.55</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.99</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.44</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.83</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">100</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.32</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.94</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">70</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.36</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.96</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">70</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">1.68</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.55</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">30</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">2.15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.06</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">14</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.02</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td></tr><tr><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">X</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">X</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="1" colspan="1">X</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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