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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Physical and Chemical Properties of Some Imported Woods and their Degradation by Termites</title><author><name sortKey="Shanbhag, Rashmi R" sort="Shanbhag, Rashmi R" uniqKey="Shanbhag R" first="Rashmi R." last="Shanbhag">Rashmi R. Shanbhag</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sundararaj, R" sort="Sundararaj, R" uniqKey="Sundararaj R" first="R." last="Sundararaj">R. Sundararaj</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">23906349</idno><idno type="pmc">3740926</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3740926</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:3740926</idno><idno type="doi">10.1673/031.013.6301</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000193</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000193</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Physical and Chemical Properties of Some Imported Woods and their Degradation by Termites</title><author><name sortKey="Shanbhag, Rashmi R" sort="Shanbhag, Rashmi R" uniqKey="Shanbhag R" first="Rashmi R." last="Shanbhag">Rashmi R. Shanbhag</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sundararaj, R" sort="Sundararaj, R" uniqKey="Sundararaj R" first="R." last="Sundararaj">R. Sundararaj</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff1"></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Journal of Insect Science</title><idno type="eISSN">1536-2442</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>The influence of physical and chemical properties of 20 species of imported wood on degradation of the wood by termites under field conditions was studied. The wood species studied were: Sycamore maple, <italic>Acer pseudoplatanus</italic> L. (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) (from two countries), Camphor, <italic>Dryobalanops aromatic</italic> C.F.Gaertner (Malvales: Dipterocarpaceae), Beech, <italic>Fagus grandifolia</italic> Ehrhart (Fagales: Fagaceae), <italic>F. sylvatica</italic> L. (from two countries), Oak, <italic>Quercus robur</italic> L., Ash, <italic>Fraxinus angustifolia</italic> Vahl (Lamiales: Oleaceae), <italic>F. excelsior</italic> L., Padauk, <italic>Pterocarpus soyauxii</italic> Taubert (Fabales: Fabaceae), (from two countries), Jamba, <italic>Xylia dolabrifiormis</italic> Roxburgh, <italic>Shorea laevis</italic> Ridley (Malvales: Dipterocarpaceae), <italic>S. macoptera</italic> Dyer, <italic>S. robusta</italic> Roth, Teak, <italic>Tectona grandis</italic> L.f. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae) (from five countries), and rubber tree, <italic>Hevea brasiliensis</italic> Müller Argoviensis (Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae) from India. The termites present were: <italic>Odontotermes horni</italic> (Wasmann) (Isoptera: Termitidae), <italic>O. feae, O. wallonensis,</italic> and <italic>O. obeus</italic> (Rambur). A significant conelation was found between density, cellulose, lignin, and total phenolic contents of the wood and degradation by termites. The higher the density of the wood, the lower the degradation. Similarly, higher amount of lignin and total phenolic contents ensured higher resistance, whereas cellulose drives the termites towards the wood.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Abreu, Rls" uniqKey="Abreu R">RLS Abreu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Silva, Kes" uniqKey="Silva K">KES Silva</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Abushama, Ft" uniqKey="Abushama F">FT Abushama</name></author><author><name sortKey="Abdel Nur, Ho" uniqKey="Abdel Nur H">HO Abdel Nur</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Badawi, A" uniqKey="Badawi A">A Badawi</name></author><author><name sortKey="Faragalla, Aa" uniqKey="Faragalla A">AA Faragalla</name></author><author><name sortKey="Dabour, A" uniqKey="Dabour A">A Dabour</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Barbosa, Ap" uniqKey="Barbosa A">AP 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">J Insect Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">J. Insect Sci</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">insc</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Journal of Insect Science</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1536-2442</issn><publisher><publisher-name>University of Wisconsin Library</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">23906349</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">3740926</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1673/031.013.6301</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Physical and Chemical Properties of Some Imported Woods and their Degradation by Termites</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Shanbhag</surname><given-names>Rashmi R.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corr1"><sup>a</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corr3"><sup>*</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Sundararaj</surname><given-names>R.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corr2"><sup>b</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"></xref></contrib><aff id="aff1">Institute of Wood Science and Technology, 18<sup>th</sup> cross, Malleswaram, Bangalore, 560003</aff></contrib-group><author-notes><corresp id="corr1"><label>a</label><email>rashmishanbhags@gmail.com</email></corresp><corresp id="corr2"><label>b</label><email>rsundararaj@icfre.org</email></corresp><corresp id="corr3"><label>*</label>Corresponding author</corresp><fn id="fn01"><p><bold>Editor:</bold> Nadir Erbilgin was editor of this paper.</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2013</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>25</day><month>6</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><volume>13</volume><elocation-id>63</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>7</day><month>12</month><year>2011</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>6</day><month>6</month><year>2012</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2013</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2013</copyright-year><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/"><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>The influence of physical and chemical properties of 20 species of imported wood on degradation of the wood by termites under field conditions was studied. The wood species studied were: Sycamore maple, <italic>Acer pseudoplatanus</italic> L. (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) (from two countries), Camphor, <italic>Dryobalanops aromatic</italic> C.F.Gaertner (Malvales: Dipterocarpaceae), Beech, <italic>Fagus grandifolia</italic> Ehrhart (Fagales: Fagaceae), <italic>F. sylvatica</italic> L. (from two countries), Oak, <italic>Quercus robur</italic> L., Ash, <italic>Fraxinus angustifolia</italic> Vahl (Lamiales: Oleaceae), <italic>F. excelsior</italic> L., Padauk, <italic>Pterocarpus soyauxii</italic> Taubert (Fabales: Fabaceae), (from two countries), Jamba, <italic>Xylia dolabrifiormis</italic> Roxburgh, <italic>Shorea laevis</italic> Ridley (Malvales: Dipterocarpaceae), <italic>S. macoptera</italic> Dyer, <italic>S. robusta</italic> Roth, Teak, <italic>Tectona grandis</italic> L.f. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae) (from five countries), and rubber tree, <italic>Hevea brasiliensis</italic> Müller Argoviensis (Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae) from India. The termites present were: <italic>Odontotermes horni</italic> (Wasmann) (Isoptera: Termitidae), <italic>O. feae, O. wallonensis,</italic> and <italic>O. obeus</italic> (Rambur). A significant conelation was found between density, cellulose, lignin, and total phenolic contents of the wood and degradation by termites. The higher the density of the wood, the lower the degradation. Similarly, higher amount of lignin and total phenolic contents ensured higher resistance, whereas cellulose drives the termites towards the wood.</p></abstract><kwd-group><title>Keywords</title><kwd>cellulose</kwd><kwd>density</kwd><kwd>lignin</kwd><kwd>total phenolic</kwd><kwd>wood resistance</kwd></kwd-group><counts><page-count count="8"></page-count></counts></article-meta></front><body><sec id="sec1"><title>Introduction</title><p>Wood is susceptible to biodegradation by a variety of organisms. Protecting wood from biodegration and the resulting economic losses is a major challenge. Among the biodeteriorating organisms, termites are a major threat to the service life of wood as they mainly feed on cellulose (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr28">Scheffrahn 1991</xref>). Factors affecting wood consumption by termites are numerous and complexly related. Among the most important of these factors are wood species, hardness, presence of toxic substances, feeding inhibitors or deterrents, and moisture content of the wood and soil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr30">Smythe et al. 1971</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr09">Carter and Smythe 1974</xref>). The physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of wood are probably interdependent and affect the wood's resistance to termites. Among the physical factors, wood density influences the termite's ability to fragment the wood mechanically with its mandibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr08">Bultman et al. 1979</xref>), whereas the moisture content drives the termite towards the wood. Wood is a complex, heterogenouse aggregate of cell wall fibers composed primarily of cellulose and hemicellulose, joined by polymers of lignin, to form rigid lignocellulosic matrix, and symbiont and enzyme degraded cellulosic polysaccharides provide the principal carbohydrate component in the diets of wood feeding termites (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr17">La Fage and Nutting 1978</xref>). Lignin and other chemical extractives, such as alkaloids, phenols, resins, terpenes, essential oils, quinones, silica etc., appear to play the most vital role in preventing the degradation of wood by termites (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr22">Oshima 1919</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr05">Bavendumm 1955</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr34">Walcott 1957</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr27">Sandermann and Dietrichs 1957</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr29">Sen Sarma et al. 1975</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr13">Gupta and Sen Sarma 1978</xref>). They act as toxicants, feeding deterrents, repellants, or as non-preferred substrates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr35">Walcott 1946</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr02">Abushama and Abdel Nur 1973</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr28">Scheffrahn 1991</xref>). The present study aimed to relate the physical and chemical properties of different kinds of wood commonly imported to India with degradation by termites in natural condition.</p></sec><sec sec-type="materials|methods" id="sec2"><title>Materials and Methods</title><p>A field experiment was conducted on twenty species of wood, <italic>Acer pseudoplatanus, Dryobalanops aromatica, Fagus grandifolia, Fa. sylvatica, Fraxinus angustifolia, Fr. excelsior, Pterocarpus soyauxii, Quercus robur, Shorea laevis, S. marcoptera, S. robusta, Tectona grandis,</italic> and <italic>Xylia dolabriformis,</italic> imported from different countries, and a native grown rubber, <italic>Hevea brasiliensis,</italic> owing to its well-known susceptibility to termite attack (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01_01">Table 1</xref>). Ten stakes measuring 30.5 cm × 3.8 cm × 3.8 cm and consisting of pure heartwood, avoiding sapwood and pith, of each species of wood were prepared. Care was taken to ensure that the stakes selected belonged to different logs in order to avoid pseudo-replications, and were free from large knots, stains, moulds, decay, and other defects. The stakes were dried to attain constant weight and then labelled. The stakes were weighed and then implanted in soil 60 cm apart in a completely randomized design at a termite test yard, which was severally infested with termites. The test yard was located in Nallal, Karnataka, India, between 13° 4′ 0″ N and 77° 47′ 53″ E, which has a semi-arid climate, an average rainfall of 826 mm, and a temperature range between 18.8 and 29.3° C. The soil is red, loamy, and acidic, with a water holding capacity of 37.77 mm per 15 cm of soil depth. This area is prone to termite attack, and has no fungal activity because of its dry weather. Each stake was half buried, for exposure to termite degradation in the ground condition. After a period of six months, the stakes were removed, brought back to laboratory, rinsed and scrubbed with a brush to remove all soil and carton material, and then oven dried and weighed. The weight loss was calculated by subtracting the weight of the stake recovered from the initial weight of the wood stake. The termites active in the area and on the test stakes were collected, preserved in 70% ethanol, and identified using taxonomic keys. Simultaneously, all the 21 wood species used in study were analyzed for their density (Indian standard 401:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr15">1982</xref>), cellulose content by Anthrone reagent method (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr26">Sadasivam and Manickam 1992</xref>), lignin content by Klason lignin method (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr25">Rowell 2005</xref>), and total phenolic content by Folin-Ciocalteau reagent method (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr26">Sadasivam and Manickam 1992</xref>).</p><fig id="f01_01" fig-type="figure" position="float"><label>Figure 1.</label><caption><p>Number of individuals of the four termite species found. High quality figures are available online.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="f01_01"></graphic></fig><fig id="f02_01" fig-type="figure" position="float"><label>Figure 2.</label><caption><p>Percentage of weight loss for each wood species. High quality figures are available online.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="f02_01"></graphic></fig><sec id="sec2a"><title>Statistical Analysis</title><p>From the data collected, mean weight loss due to termite consumption was calculated. Differences in wood consumption by termites were compared using one-way Kruskal Wallis ANOVA because the test for normality failed. Mean weight loss was correlated with the physical and chemical parameters. All statistical analysis was performed by using SigmaStat® 3.1 statistical software (Systat, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="www.systat.com">www.systat.com</ext-link>).</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec3"><title>Results and Discussion</title><p>The test yard was found infested with four species of termites, namely <italic>Odontotermes horni</italic> (Wasmann) (Isoptera: Termitidae), <italic>O. feae, O. wallonensis,</italic> and <italic>O. obeus</italic> (Rambur). <italic>O. obesus</italic> was dominant among the species, followed by <italic>O. feae, O. horni,</italic> and <italic>O. wallonensis</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01_01">Figure 1</xref>). The test yard is known for severe termite infestation, and the present observation confirms earlier reports (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr16">Krishnan and Sivaramakrishnan 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr23">Rajamuthukrishnan et al. 2004</xref>). No fungal activity was observed on the wood species in the test yard, most likely due to the semi arid nature of the area, which has low atmospheric moisture and a scarcity of water. Therefore, the mass loss of wood in the experimental layout was found to be exclusively due to termite degradation, with different levels of weight loss in six months of implantation. The result of the Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks revealed that there was a statistically significant difference (H = 101.017, df = 20, <italic>p</italic> = 0.001) in the rate of degradation in different wood species. <italic>Fa. sylvatica, Fr. angustifolia, Fr. excelsior, A. pseudoplatanu,</italic> and <italic>H. brasiliensis</italic> species experienced the most degradation. <italic>Q. robur</italic> showed moderate levels of degradation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02_01">Figure 2</xref>). The other species did not show any sign of termite attack.</p><p>Resistance is a critical determinant of life span of tree species. Many heartwood species are known for their resistance against degradation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr14">Harris 1961</xref>). Tree species such as <italic>T. grandis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr22">Oshima 1919</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr05">Bavendumm 1955</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr27">Sandermann and Dietrichs 1957</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr34">Walcott 1957</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr06">Behr et al. 1972</xref>)), <italic>S. robosta</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr29">Sen Sarma et al. 1975</xref>), <italic>Shorea</italic> sp. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr19">Mohd Dahlan and Tarn 1985</xref>), <italic>S. marcoptera, Dryobalanops</italic> sp., and <italic>Xylia dolabriformis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr18">Ling 1996</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr12">Grace et al. 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr36">Wong et al. 2005</xref>), and <italic>Pterocarpus soyauxii</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr21">Nzokou et al. 2005</xref>) are well-known for their durability from ancient times. In our study, <italic>Q. robur</italic> was found to be moderately resistant against degradation under Indian conditions. Rapp and Augusta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">2006</xref>) considered <italic>Q. robur</italic> as a less durable wood species as per European standards. In our study, <italic>Fa. grandifolia, Fa. sylvatica, Fr. angustifolia, Fr. excelsior, A. pseudoplatanus,</italic> and <italic>H. brasiliensis</italic> were found to be susceptible woods. These results are in corroboration with the findings of Badawi et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr03">1985</xref>) and Evans et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr11">2008</xref>).</p><p>Several physical and chemical factors determine natural resistance of wood against termite attack. The density of the tested wood species ranged from 0.589 (<italic>Fr. excelsior</italic> from Belgium) to 0.955 g/m<sup>3</sup> (<italic>S. robusta</italic> from Malaysia). Chemical analysis of imported wood species indicated cellulose content ranged from 43% in <italic>T. grandis</italic> from Myanmar to 59% in <italic>S. marcoptera</italic> from Malaysia. Lignin content was highest in <italic>T. grandis</italic> from Myanmar (36%) and lowest in <italic>Fa. sylvatica</italic> and <italic>A. pseudoplatanus</italic> from France (22%). The total phenolics varied between 271 mg/100g in <italic>Fa. sylvatica</italic> from France to 768 mg/100g in <italic>S. laevis</italic> from Indonesia. The correlation matrix (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02_01">Table 2</xref>) between physical and chemical properties of wood and weight loss due to termite attack showed that the resistanceability of the wood was significantly associated to its physical and chemical properties. Correlation analysis between the chemical composition of the imported wood species and the weight loss percentage due to termite attack indicated that the density (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03_01">Figure 3</xref>), cellulose (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04_01">Figure 4</xref>), lignin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05_01">Figure 5</xref>), and total phenolic contents (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06_01">Figure 6</xref>) were significantly conelated with degradation by termites at a 5% level of significance.</p><fig id="f03_01" fig-type="figure" position="float"><label>Figure 3.</label><caption><p>Relationship between density and weight loss in wood. High quality figures are available online.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="f03_01"></graphic></fig><fig id="f04_01" fig-type="figure" position="float"><label>Figure 4.</label><caption><p>Relationship between cellulose content and weight loss in wood. High quality figures are available online.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="f04_01"></graphic></fig><fig id="f05_01" fig-type="figure" position="float"><label>Figure 5.</label><caption><p>Relationship between lignin content and weight loss in wood. High quality figures are available online.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="f05_01"></graphic></fig><fig id="f06_01" fig-type="figure" position="float"><label>Figure 6.</label><caption><p>Relationship between total phenolic content and weight loss of tree species. High quality figures are available online.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="f06_01"></graphic></fig><p>Density had the greatest effect on the rate of degradation, and it was found that the higher the density of the wood, the more the wood was able to resist termites. A similar relationship was established by Da Costa and Osborne (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr10">1967</xref>) and Takahashi and Krishima (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr32">1973</xref>). Behr et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr06">1972</xref>) reported a negative correlation between wood density and consumption by termites. Bultman and Southwell (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr07">1976</xref>), Bultman et. al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr08">1979</xref>), and Abreu and Silva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr01">2000</xref>) stated that termites prefer less dense woods, due to the ease of mechanically breaking down the wood. Bultman and Southwell (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr07">1976</xref>) studied the natural resistance of the wood of 114 arboreal species in the forests of Panama and concluded that density is one of the factors that makes wood resistant to termites; the denser and heavier woods presented greater natural durability and resistance to infestation by subtenanean termites.</p><p>It is important to highlight that wood density is not the only factor providing resistance to termites. According to Bultman and Southwell (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr07">1976</xref>), Moore (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr20">1979</xref>), and Barbosa et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr04">2003</xref>), the high resistance of some wood species to termites can be explained by the properties of their chemical components, because there is a close relationship between the percentage of toxic extracts and the natural durability of the wood. Tsunoda (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr33">1990</xref>) concluded that chemical compositions of wood extracts are valuable for understanding resistance to biodegradation.</p><p>Chemical constituents, such as cellulose, lignin, and total phenolic content, of wood influenced the rate of degradation, and it was found that the higher the cellulose content, the higher the susceptibility to termite attacks. However, the higher the lignin and total phenolic content, the higher the resistance of wood species. Cellulose is one of the factors that drive termites towards wood species, as it is a primary food source for termites (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr17">La Fage and Nutting 1978</xref>), which explains the significant positive correlation of cellulose content and wood degradation. Lignin acts as a physical barrier, which is unpalatable to termites (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr35">Walcott 1946</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr31">Syafii et al. 1988</xref>). Extractives and other phenolic compounds of wood also impart higher resistance to termite attack. Wood species with lower amounts of cellulose and higher amounts of lignin and total phenol were termite resistant, while the wood with higher amounts of cellulose and lower amounts of lignin and total phenol were susceptible to termite damage. Previous studies correlating resistance of wood and higher amounts of lignin and extractives in <italic>T. grandis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr29">Sen Sarma et al. 1975</xref>) and in <italic>Eusideroxylon zwageri</italic> and <italic>Neobalanocarpus heimi</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr31">Syafii et al. 1988</xref>) are in concordance with the present study.</p><table-wrap id="t01_01" position="float"><label>Table 1.</label><caption><p>Details of the wood species used in this study.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="t01_01"></graphic></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t02_01" position="float"><label>Table 2.</label><caption><p>Correlation matrix for the rate of degradation with physical and chemical properties of wood.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="t02_01"></graphic></table-wrap></sec></body><back><ack><title>Acknowledgements</title><p>The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Director and Group Coordinator (Research) of the Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore, and the Head of the Wood Bio degradation Division for their encouragement. 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