Variations in Quercus sp. pollen seasons (1996–2011) in Poznań, Poland, in relation to meteorological parameters
Identifieur interne : 000064 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 000063; suivant : 000065Variations in Quercus sp. pollen seasons (1996–2011) in Poznań, Poland, in relation to meteorological parameters
Auteurs : Łukasz Grewling ; Bogdan Jackowiak ; Matt SmithSource :
- Aerobiologia [ 0393-5965 ] ; 2013.
Abstract
The aim of this study is to supply detailed information about oak (
Url:
DOI: 10.1007/s10453-013-9313-3
PubMed: 24817783
PubMed Central: 4012158
Links to Exploration step
PMC:4012158Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Variations in <italic>Quercus</italic> sp. pollen seasons (1996–2011) in Poznań, Poland, in relation to meteorological parameters</title><author><name sortKey="Grewling, Lukasz" sort="Grewling, Lukasz" uniqKey="Grewling L" first="Łukasz" last="Grewling">Łukasz Grewling</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Laboratory of Aeropalynology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jackowiak, Bogdan" sort="Jackowiak, Bogdan" uniqKey="Jackowiak B" first="Bogdan" last="Jackowiak">Bogdan Jackowiak</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Laboratory of Aeropalynology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Matt" sort="Smith, Matt" uniqKey="Smith M" first="Matt" last="Smith">Matt Smith</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">Research Group Aerobiology and Pollen Information, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">24817783</idno><idno type="pmc">4012158</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4012158</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4012158</idno><idno type="doi">10.1007/s10453-013-9313-3</idno><date when="2013">2013</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000064</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000064</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Variations in <italic>Quercus</italic> sp. pollen seasons (1996–2011) in Poznań, Poland, in relation to meteorological parameters</title><author><name sortKey="Grewling, Lukasz" sort="Grewling, Lukasz" uniqKey="Grewling L" first="Łukasz" last="Grewling">Łukasz Grewling</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Laboratory of Aeropalynology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jackowiak, Bogdan" sort="Jackowiak, Bogdan" uniqKey="Jackowiak B" first="Bogdan" last="Jackowiak">Bogdan Jackowiak</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Laboratory of Aeropalynology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Smith, Matt" sort="Smith, Matt" uniqKey="Smith M" first="Matt" last="Smith">Matt Smith</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">Research Group Aerobiology and Pollen Information, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Aerobiologia</title><idno type="ISSN">0393-5965</idno><idno type="eISSN">1573-3025</idno><imprint><date when="2013">2013</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>The aim of this study is to supply detailed information about oak (<italic>Quercus</italic> sp.) pollen seasons in Poznań, Poland, based on a 16-year aerobiological data series (1996–2011). The pollen data were collected using a volumetric spore trap of the Hirst design located in Poznań city center. The limits of the pollen seasons were calculated using the 95 % method. The influence of meteorological parameters on temporal variations in airborne pollen was examined using correlation analysis. Start and end dates of oak pollen seasons in Poznań varied markedly from year-to-year (14 and 17 days, respectively). Most of the pollen grains (around 75 % of the seasonal pollen index) were recorded within the first 2 weeks of the pollen season. The tenfold variation was observed between the least and the most intensive pollen seasons. These fluctuations were significantly related to the variation in the sum of rain during the period second fortnight of March to first fortnight of April the year before pollination (<italic>r</italic> = 0.799; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001). During the analyzing period, a significant advance in oak pollen season start dates was observed (−0.55 day/year; <italic>p</italic> = 0.021), which was linked with an increase in the mean temperature during the second half of March and first half of April (+0.2 °C; <italic>p</italic> = 0.014). Daily average oak pollen counts correlated positively with mean and maximum daily temperatures, and negatively with daily rainfall and daily mean relative humidity.
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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Aerobiologia (Bologna)</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Aerobiologia (Bologna)</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Aerobiologia</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0393-5965</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1573-3025</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Springer Netherlands</publisher-name><publisher-loc>Dordrecht</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">24817783</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4012158</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">9313</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s10453-013-9313-3</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Original Paper</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Variations in <italic>Quercus</italic> sp. pollen seasons (1996–2011) in Poznań, Poland, in relation to meteorological parameters</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name><surname>Grewling</surname><given-names>Łukasz</given-names></name><address><phone>+48-61-8295701</phone><fax>+48-61-8295700</fax><email>lukaszgrewling@gmail.com</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Jackowiak</surname><given-names>Bogdan</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Smith</surname><given-names>Matt</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2"></xref></contrib><aff id="Aff1"><label></label>Laboratory of Aeropalynology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland</aff><aff id="Aff2"><label></label>Research Group Aerobiology and Pollen Information, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria</aff></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>7</day><month>8</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>7</day><month>8</month><year>2013</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="ppub"><year>2014</year></pub-date><volume>30</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>149</fpage><lpage>159</lpage><history><date date-type="received"><day>19</day><month>4</month><year>2013</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>1</day><month>8</month><year>2013</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© The Author(s) 2013</copyright-statement><license license-type="OpenAccess"><license-p><bold>Open Access</bold>This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract id="Abs1"><p>The aim of this study is to supply detailed information about oak (<italic>Quercus</italic> sp.) pollen seasons in Poznań, Poland, based on a 16-year aerobiological data series (1996–2011). The pollen data were collected using a volumetric spore trap of the Hirst design located in Poznań city center. The limits of the pollen seasons were calculated using the 95 % method. The influence of meteorological parameters on temporal variations in airborne pollen was examined using correlation analysis. Start and end dates of oak pollen seasons in Poznań varied markedly from year-to-year (14 and 17 days, respectively). Most of the pollen grains (around 75 % of the seasonal pollen index) were recorded within the first 2 weeks of the pollen season. The tenfold variation was observed between the least and the most intensive pollen seasons. These fluctuations were significantly related to the variation in the sum of rain during the period second fortnight of March to first fortnight of April the year before pollination (<italic>r</italic> = 0.799; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001). During the analyzing period, a significant advance in oak pollen season start dates was observed (−0.55 day/year; <italic>p</italic> = 0.021), which was linked with an increase in the mean temperature during the second half of March and first half of April (+0.2 °C; <italic>p</italic> = 0.014). Daily average oak pollen counts correlated positively with mean and maximum daily temperatures, and negatively with daily rainfall and daily mean relative humidity.
</p></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Trends</kwd><kwd>Climate change</kwd><kwd>Central Europe</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>issue-copyright-statement</meta-name><meta-value>© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="Sec1" sec-type="introduction"><title>Introduction</title><p>Oak (<italic>Quercus</italic> sp.) is of economic importance and as such is one of the most desirable broad-leaved trees in Polish forests (Boratyńska et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR3">2006</xref>). Three native species of oaks, i.e., pedunculate oak (<italic>Q. robur</italic>), sessile oak (<italic>Q. petraea</italic>) and downy oak (<italic>Q. pubescens</italic>), occur in Poland. However, the distribution of the latter is limited to an isolated stand near to the Oder River (Zając and Zając <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR60">2001</xref>). <italic>Q. robur</italic> grows mainly in the oak-hornbeam forests on fertile loam soil whereas <italic>Q. petraea</italic> occupied more thermophilous and acidophilus oakwoods (Matuszkiewicz <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR37">2011</xref>). The most common species occurring in green spaces in Poznań is pedunculate oak (Jackowiak <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">1993</xref>). Apart from three native <italic>Quercus</italic> species, red oak (<italic>Q. rubra</italic>) was introduced to Poland from North America and is currently widespread in forest ecosystems (Woziwoda et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR59">2012</xref>).</p><p>Oaks are anemophilous trees that produce enormous amount of pollen (Jato et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">2007</xref>; Gómez-Casero et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">2004</xref>; Tormo-Molina et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR53">1996</xref>). Their staminate inflorescences are initiated in late spring 1 year before pollination, and the meiosis occurs in the following spring (Ducousso et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR12">1993</xref>). Male flowers of <italic>Quercus</italic> species are evenly distributed on the long pendulous, catkin like inflorescences, and their mean number varies, depending on species, from 19 to 26 (for <italic>Q. robur</italic> and <italic>Q. petraea</italic>, respectively) (Chałupka <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR7">2006</xref>). For a given tree, catkin growth is achieved 1–2 weeks after bud opening and pollination is completed in 2–4 days. However, the rate of development depends on weather conditions (Ducousso et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR12">1993</xref>). In Central and Western Europe, the flowering time is mainly limited to the April–May period (Corden and Millington <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">1999</xref>; Weryszko-Chmielewska et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">2006</xref>; Kasprzyk <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">2009</xref>).</p><p>In general, oak pollen is not considered to be a potent aeroallergen, although the relationship between clinical and aerobiological data in the UK suggests that oak pollen could be an important cause of hay fever symptoms (Ross et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR46">1996</xref>). This may be related to the high level of immunologic similarities between pollen of trees belonging to the Fagales order, e.g., hazel, alder, birch and oak (Wallner et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR54">2009</xref>). A recent study revealed oak pollen contains allergens that cross-react with the birch pollen allergens Bet v 1, Bet v 2 and Bet v 4 (Egger et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR14">2008</xref>). In addition, positive skin reactions to oak pollen allergens have been reported in many regions (Basak et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR2">2011</xref>; Larenas-Linnemann et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">2011</xref>; Kim and Cho <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">2012</xref>; García-Mozo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR21">1999</xref>). Results obtained in Warsaw, Poland (Rapiejko et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">2004</xref>), showed that 19 % of allergic patients had positive skin reactions to <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen and the first allergic reaction in the patients with positive SPT occurred when daily average oak pollen levels reached 80 P m<sup>−3</sup>, a value that can be reached almost every year in Poznań (Stach <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR51">2006</xref>).</p><p>The behavior and course of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen seasons have been comprehensively studied in Western Europe, especially in the UK and Spain (Corden and Millington <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">1999</xref>; García-Mozo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR20">2002</xref>; Jato et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">2002</xref>; García-Mozo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">2008</xref>). However, there is still a dearth of data concerning the environmental factors affecting the production and release of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen in Central Europe (Weryszko-Chmielewska et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">2006</xref>; Kasprzyk <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">2009</xref>). This study supplies detailed information about the variations, trends and climatic requirements of oak pollen seasons in Poznań, Poland.</p></sec><sec id="Sec2" sec-type="materials|methods"><title>Methods</title><sec id="Sec3"><title>Study area and climate</title><p>Poznań, population ~550,000, is the capital of Wielkopolska, an agricultural region located in mid-western Poland (CSO <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR10">2011</xref>). Poznań has a temperate continental climate with cold winters and warm summers. January is the coldest month of the year with the mean monthly temperature −1.6 °C, whereas July is the warmest one (18.1 °C). The mean annual precipitation is 517 mm (1951–2000 average). Westerly winds predominate, particularly from the SW (Woś <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR58">2010</xref>).</p></sec><sec id="Sec4"><title>Aerobiological data</title><p>Quercus pollen data (1996–2011) were collected in Poznań by volumetric spore trap of the Hirst design (Hirst <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">1952</xref>). The trap was situated 33 m above ground level, about 1 km southwest of the city center (52°24′N 16°53′E). In the neighborhood around the pollen-monitoring site, there are 4–8 storey buildings, two small parks, gardens, patches of grass and ruderal vegetation. The nearest oak stand with 64 trees of <italic>Q. robur</italic> and 7 of <italic>Q. rubra</italic> is located in Manitius Park approximately 500 m south from the pollen trap.</p><p>Two different pollen-counting methods have been employed. From 1996 to 1999, pollen data were collected following the methods outlined by Stach (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR50">2000</xref>) where pollen grains were counted along twelve latitudinal transects. From 2000 to 2011, this method was changed and pollen grains were counted along four longitudinal transects, which were divided into 2-mm (1 hourly) intervals, following the method described by the Spanish Aerobiological Network (Galán et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">2007</xref>). The two <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen datasets from Poznań were spliced together to make a single dataset running from 1996 to 2011. Both counting methods have been shown to produce comparable results (Cariñanos et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR5">2000</xref>). Daily average and bi-hourly concentrations of pollen grains are expressed as P m<sup>−3</sup> (Comtois <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">1998</xref>).</p><p>The limits of the oak pollen season were calculated by using the 95 % method (Nilsson and Persson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">1981</xref>) whereby the season starts when 2.5 % of the total catch was achieved and ends when 97.5 % is reached. Data related to start, end and peak day were converted to the day of the year from 1 January (DOY). Due to the trap failure during the 2008 oak pollen season, the dataset contained missing values, which were replaced by the mean daily average <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen count for that day (1996–2001 mean): 3 days, 9–11 May 2008.</p><p>The following characteristics of the oak pollen season were examined: start date, end date, duration (number of days), the duration of the pre-peak period (number of days from the start of the oak pollen season to the peak date), the intensity of the oak pollen season (season pollen index, SPI), the timing and magnitude of the peak day (the highest daily average pollen concentration during pollen season), percentage of the total SPI recorded during 4 × 1 weekly periods during the oak pollen season (%) and the number of days during the season with daily average oak pollen levels >80 P m<sup>−3</sup>. This threshold value (80 P m<sup>−3</sup>) was based on atmospheric concentrations of oak pollen reported to evoke allergic symptoms in Poland (Rapiejko et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">2004</xref>).</p></sec><sec id="Sec5"><title>Meteorological data</title><p>Meteorological data, i.e., daily average maximum, minimum and mean temperature, daily rainfall and relative humidity (RH), were obtained from the station located at Ławica Airport (52°25′N 16°49′E) approximately 7 km from the city center and 4.25 km west of the pollen-monitoring site. In order to analyze the influence of weather conditions on variations and trends (expressed by linear function, data not shown) of oak pollen seasons, the following meteorological parameters were examined:<list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Fortnightly, monthly, 1.5-monthly and 2-monthly mean, maximum and minimum daily average temperatures and daily rainfall from the year preceding pollination (1995–2010), as well as from the same year as pollination (1996–2011, January–April);</p></list-item><list-item><p>Averages of daily mean, maximum and minimum temperatures and daily rainfall recorded during the first and second week of oak pollen season and during the whole pollen season.</p></list-item></list></p></sec><sec id="Sec6"><title>Statistical analysis</title><p>Correlations between chosen meteorological parameters (mentioned in Sect. <xref rid="Sec5" ref-type="sec">2.3</xref>) and particular characteristics of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen season (mentioned in Sect. <xref rid="Sec4" ref-type="sec">2.2</xref>) were examined using the parametric Pearson correlation test. The relationship between daily average oak pollen concentrations and the daily meteorological data (maximum, minimum and mean temperature, daily rainfall and RH) was examined using nonparametric Spearman correlation analysis. Parametric (Pearson) or nonparametric (Spearman) analysis was applied depending on data distribution (checked by Shapiro–Wilk test with <italic>p</italic> level <0.05, results not shown). Simple linear regression analysis was used to describe trends of the chosen characteristics of the oak pollen season. The following statistics are shown: the slope of the regression (β); coefficient of determination (<italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup>); and probability level (<italic>p</italic>). All calculations were carried out using software Microsoft Excel, XLSTAT 2010 and Statistica 10.</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec7" sec-type="results"><title>Results</title><p>Start and end dates of oak pollen seasons in Poznań during the studied period varied by about 2 weeks annually (Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>). In 2006 and 2010, the onset of the oak pollen season was observed during the third week of April (111 DOY), whereas in 1997, the oak pollen season started at the beginning of May (125 DOY). Usually the oak pollen grains were recorded in the air through the whole of May, with the highest daily pollen concentrations occurring in the first week of the season. On peak days, the mean daily average oak pollen level exceeded 210 P m<sup>−3</sup>. Almost 75 % of the total SPI was recorded within the first 2 weeks of the pollen season. However, this value varied greatly depending on year (from 8.1 % in 2006 to 93.2 % in 2009). Tenfold differences were observed between the least and the most intensive pollen seasons (229 grains in 1997 and 2,514 grains in 2009). During the latter, high daily average pollen concentrations able to induce allergy reactions (>80 P m<sup>−3</sup>) were recorded on 9 days.<table-wrap id="Tab1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Characteristics and trends of oak pollen seasons in Poznań (1996–2011)</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Years</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Start (DOY)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">End (DOY)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Duration (days)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">SPI (grains)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Peak value (P/m<sup>3</sup>)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Peak day (DOY)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Duration of pre-peak period (days)</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">Numbers of days with pollen level above 80 P/m<sup>3</sup></th><th align="left" colspan="4">Percentage of total SPI during 4 × 1 weekly periods of pollen season</th></tr><tr><th align="left">1st week</th><th align="left">2nd week</th><th align="left">3rd week</th><th align="left">4th week</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">1996</td><td align="left">124</td><td align="left">150</td><td align="left">27</td><td align="left">1996</td><td align="left">512</td><td align="left">134</td><td char="." align="char">11</td><td char="." align="char">7</td><td char="." align="char">28.3</td><td char="." align="char">53.2</td><td char="." align="char">15.9</td><td char="." align="char">3.1</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1997</td><td align="left">125</td><td align="left">158</td><td align="left">34</td><td align="left">229</td><td align="left">48</td><td align="left">137</td><td char="." align="char">13</td><td char="." align="char">0</td><td char="." align="char">12.2</td><td char="." align="char">62.9</td><td char="." align="char">15.3</td><td char="." align="char">5.7</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1998</td><td align="left">118</td><td align="left">143</td><td align="left">26</td><td align="left">2037</td><td align="left">298</td><td align="left">129</td><td char="." align="char">12</td><td char="." align="char">8</td><td char="." align="char">29.6</td><td char="." align="char">54.8</td><td char="." align="char">8.8</td><td char="." align="char">7.9</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1999</td><td align="left">114</td><td align="left">140</td><td align="left">27</td><td align="left">658</td><td align="left">105</td><td align="left">120</td><td char="." align="char">7</td><td char="." align="char">2</td><td char="." align="char">11.4</td><td char="." align="char">64.4</td><td char="." align="char">15.3</td><td char="." align="char">10.3</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2000</td><td align="left">115</td><td align="left">139</td><td align="left">25</td><td align="left">672</td><td align="left">123</td><td align="left">119</td><td char="." align="char">5</td><td char="." align="char">1</td><td char="." align="char">59.7</td><td char="." align="char">29.9</td><td char="." align="char">7.4</td><td char="." align="char">3.1</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2001</td><td align="left">121</td><td align="left">150</td><td align="left">30</td><td align="left">972</td><td align="left">130</td><td align="left">131</td><td char="." align="char">11</td><td char="." align="char">5</td><td char="." align="char">20.6</td><td char="." align="char">60.2</td><td char="." align="char">14.7</td><td char="." align="char">3.6</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2002</td><td align="left">120</td><td align="left">155</td><td align="left">36</td><td align="left">1291</td><td align="left">211</td><td align="left">124</td><td char="." align="char">5</td><td char="." align="char">5</td><td char="." align="char">57.4</td><td char="." align="char">14.6</td><td char="." align="char">27.7</td><td char="." align="char">0.6</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2003</td><td align="left">120</td><td align="left">153</td><td align="left">34</td><td align="left">1500</td><td align="left">260</td><td align="left">125</td><td char="." align="char">6</td><td char="." align="char">7</td><td char="." align="char">67.6</td><td char="." align="char">22.1</td><td char="." align="char">6.9</td><td char="." align="char">2.5</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2004</td><td align="left">120</td><td align="left">157</td><td align="left">38</td><td align="left">586</td><td align="left">94</td><td align="left">125</td><td char="." align="char">6</td><td char="." align="char">2</td><td char="." align="char">59.0</td><td char="." align="char">21.2</td><td char="." align="char">10.9</td><td char="." align="char">5.3</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2005</td><td align="left">121</td><td align="left">159</td><td align="left">39</td><td align="left">809</td><td align="left">84</td><td align="left">123</td><td char="." align="char">3</td><td char="." align="char">1</td><td char="." align="char">32.8</td><td char="." align="char">16.9</td><td char="." align="char">29.0</td><td char="." align="char">16.2</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2006</td><td align="left">111</td><td align="left">148</td><td align="left">38</td><td align="left">836</td><td align="left">145</td><td align="left">134</td><td char="." align="char">24</td><td char="." align="char">2</td><td char="." align="char">7.5</td><td char="." align="char">0.6</td><td char="." align="char">26.7</td><td char="." align="char">53.9</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2007</td><td align="left">113</td><td align="left">138</td><td align="left">26</td><td align="left">999</td><td align="left">169</td><td align="left">125</td><td char="." align="char">13</td><td char="." align="char">2</td><td char="." align="char">35.3</td><td char="." align="char">55.6</td><td char="." align="char">7.8</td><td char="." align="char">2.1</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2008</td><td align="left">122</td><td align="left">147</td><td align="left">26</td><td align="left">1248</td><td align="left">249</td><td align="left">133</td><td char="." align="char">12</td><td char="." align="char">2</td><td char="." align="char">19.2</td><td char="." align="char">43.1</td><td char="." align="char">12.8</td><td char="." align="char">5.8</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2009</td><td align="left">113</td><td align="left">132</td><td align="left">20</td><td align="left">2514</td><td align="left">424</td><td align="left">116</td><td char="." align="char">4</td><td char="." align="char">9</td><td char="." align="char">52.1</td><td char="." align="char">41.1</td><td char="." align="char">7.4</td><td char="." align="char">1.4</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2010</td><td align="left">111</td><td align="left">150</td><td align="left">40</td><td align="left">1479</td><td align="left">296</td><td align="left">120</td><td char="." align="char">10</td><td char="." align="char">5</td><td char="." align="char">1.2</td><td char="." align="char">49.0</td><td char="." align="char">23.9</td><td char="." align="char">14.3</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2011</td><td align="left">114</td><td align="left">136</td><td align="left">23</td><td align="left">1570</td><td align="left">214</td><td align="left">117</td><td char="." align="char">4</td><td char="." align="char">6</td><td char="." align="char">59.0</td><td char="." align="char">26.2</td><td char="." align="char">13.9</td><td char="." align="char">1.8</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Mean</td><td align="left">118</td><td align="left">147</td><td align="left">31</td><td align="left">1212</td><td align="left">210</td><td align="left">126</td><td char="." align="char">9</td><td char="." align="char">4</td><td char="." align="char">35</td><td char="." align="char">38</td><td char="." align="char">15</td><td char="." align="char">9</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Min</td><td align="left">111.0</td><td align="left">132.0</td><td align="left">20.0</td><td align="left">229.0</td><td align="left">48.0</td><td align="left">116.0</td><td char="." align="char">3.0</td><td char="." align="char">0.0</td><td char="." align="char">1.2</td><td char="." align="char">0.6</td><td char="." align="char">6.9</td><td char="." align="char">0.6</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Max</td><td align="left">125.0</td><td align="left">159.0</td><td align="left">40.0</td><td align="left">2514.0</td><td align="left">512.0</td><td align="left">137.0</td><td char="." align="char">24.0</td><td char="." align="char">9.0</td><td char="." align="char">67.6</td><td char="." align="char">64.4</td><td char="." align="char">29.0</td><td char="." align="char">53.9</td></tr><tr><td align="left">β</td><td align="left"><bold>−0</bold>.<bold>553</bold></td><td align="left">−0.549</td><td align="left">0.004</td><td align="left">28.921</td><td align="left">0.794</td><td align="left">−0.659</td><td char="." align="char">−0.106</td><td char="." align="char">0.053</td><td char="." align="char">0.469</td><td char="." align="char">−1.529</td><td char="." align="char">0.169</td><td char="." align="char">0.405</td></tr><tr><td align="left">R<sup>2</sup></td><td align="left"><bold>0</bold>.<bold>327</bold></td><td align="left">0.098</td><td align="left">0.000</td><td align="left">0.050</td><td align="left">0.005</td><td align="left">0.227</td><td char="." align="char">0.009</td><td char="." align="char">0.008</td><td char="." align="char">0.010</td><td char="." align="char">0.134</td><td char="." align="char">0.011</td><td char="." align="char">0.022</td></tr><tr><td align="left">p</td><td align="left"><bold>0</bold>.<bold>021</bold></td><td align="left">0.239</td><td align="left">0.990</td><td align="left">0.403</td><td align="left">1.891</td><td align="left">0.062</td><td char="." align="char">0.727</td><td char="." align="char">0.743</td><td char="." align="char">0.706</td><td char="." align="char">0.162</td><td char="." align="char">0.696</td><td char="." align="char">0.581</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap></p><p>Only one of the analyzed characteristics of oak pollen seasons had a significant trend during the 16-year period of pollen monitoring (Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref>; Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>a). Start dates of oak pollen seasons in Poznań advanced −0.55 day/year (<italic>p</italic> = 0.021).<fig id="Fig1"><label>Fig. 1</label><caption><p>Trends in oak pollen season start dates and daily mean temperature during the 15 March–15 April (<bold>A</bold>) and graphical presentation of the relationship between these two parameters (<bold>B</bold>)</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="10453_2013_9313_Fig1_HTML" id="MO1"></graphic></fig></p><p>Correlation analysis showed a number of statistically significant (<italic>p</italic> < 0.05) relationships between the timing of oak pollen seasons in Poznań (i.e., start, end and peak dates) and meteorological data recorded before the start of the oak pollen season (in March and April) (Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref>). The mean temperature during the second fortnight of March and first fortnight of April markedly influenced the onset of the pollen season (<italic>r</italic> = −0.707; <italic>p</italic> < 0.01) and peak date (<italic>r</italic> = −0.753; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001), whereas the end date of the pollen season was significantly affected by the mean April temperature (<italic>r</italic> = −0.789; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001).<table-wrap id="Tab2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Selected significant Pearson correlations coefficients between particular characteristics of oak pollen seasons and meteorological parameters (576 correlations in total/75 significant)</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left">Pollen season parameter</th><th align="left">Period</th><th align="left">Meteorological parameter</th><th align="left">Pearson coefficient</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><italic>Meteorological parameters recorded during the same year as pollen season</italic></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Pollen season start</td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.707**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp min (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.686**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp max (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.668**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March</td><td align="left">Temp min (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.641**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.639**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March</td><td align="left">Rainfall (mm)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.634**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.590*</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Pollen season end</td><td align="left">April</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.789***</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">April</td><td align="left">Temp max (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.742**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">April</td><td align="left">Temp min (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.714**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp min (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.610*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.595*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp max (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.574*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.564*</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Peak day</td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp max (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.819***</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.753***</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp max (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.693**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.683**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March</td><td align="left">Temp max (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.634*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.604*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Temp min (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">−0.592*</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><italic>Meteorological parameters recorded 1</italic> <italic>year before pollen season</italic></td></tr><tr><td align="left">SPI</td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–1st fortnight of April</td><td align="left">Rainfall (mm)</td><td char="." align="char">0.799***</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">2nd fortnight of March–April</td><td align="left">Rainfall (mm)</td><td char="." align="char">0.763***</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">February–1st fortnight of March</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">0.643**</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">February–1st fortnight of March</td><td align="left">Temp min (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">0.625*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">February</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">0.619*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">February</td><td align="left">Temp min (°C)</td><td char="." align="char">0.617*</td></tr><tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">August–2nd fortnight of September</td><td align="left">Rainfall (mm)</td><td char="." align="char">0.556*</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>* <italic>p</italic> < 0.05; ** <italic>p</italic> < 0.01; *** <italic>p</italic> < 0.001</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>No significant relationships were observed between SPI and meteorological data recorded during the same year as pollination. However, several significant correlations were detected between SPI and the meteorological parameters recorded the previous year. For instance, the amount of rainfall during the period second fortnight of March to first fortnight of April as well as during the period August to the second fortnight of September the year before pollination positively correlated with the pollen season intensity (<italic>r</italic> = 0.799; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001 and <italic>r</italic> = 0.556; <italic>p</italic> < 0.05, respectively).</p><p>In addition, the analysis revealed that the weather conditions during the first 2 weeks of the oak pollen season significantly influenced the course of the season as a whole (Table <xref rid="Tab3" ref-type="table">3</xref>). The length of the oak pollen season positively correlated with the amount of rain recorded during the second week of the season (<italic>r</italic> = 0.719; <italic>p</italic> < 0.01). Also, the number of oak pollen collected in the first week of the oak pollen season (expressed in % of SPI) depended significantly (<italic>r</italic> = 0.792; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001) on the mean temperature recorded during that period.<table-wrap id="Tab3"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Selected significant Pearson correlations coefficients between the characteristics of oak pollen season and meteorological parameters recorded during the pollen season (60 correlations in total/11 significant)</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left">Pollen season parameter</th><th align="left">Meteorological parameters</th><th align="left">Correlation coefficient</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Percentage of pollen during first week of pollen season</td><td align="left">Temp mean (°C) during first week of pollen season</td><td char="." align="char">0.792***</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Temp max (°C) during first week of pollen season</td><td char="." align="char">0.736**</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Temp min (°C) during first week of pollen season</td><td char="." align="char">0.693**</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2">Length of pollen season</td><td align="left">Sum of rain (mm) during second week of pollen season</td><td char="." align="char">0.719**</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sum of rain (mm) during whole pollen season</td><td char="." align="char">0.690**</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>* <italic>p</italic> < 0.05; ** <italic>p</italic> < 0.01; *** <italic>p</italic> < 0.001</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>Daily variations in oak pollen concentrations were strongly influenced by the meteorological parameters measured on the same day (Table <xref rid="Tab4" ref-type="table">4</xref>). Daily average oak pollen counts correlated positively with mean and maximum daily temperatures, and negatively with daily rainfall and daily mean relative humidity.<table-wrap id="Tab4"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p>Spearman correlation coefficients between daily oak pollen concentrations and selected meteorological parameters</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left">Years</th><th align="left">Temp mean (°C)</th><th align="left">Temp max (°C)</th><th align="left">Temp min (°C)</th><th align="left">Rainfall (mm)</th><th align="left">Humidity (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">1996</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1997</td><td align="left">0.507**</td><td align="left">0.538**</td><td align="left">0.441*</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1998</td><td align="left">0.500*</td><td align="left">0.435*</td><td align="left">0.583**</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1999</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.506**</td><td align="left">−0.413*</td><td align="left">−0.490*</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2000</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">0.421*</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2001</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2002</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2003</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2004</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2005</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2006</td><td align="left">0.505**</td><td align="left">0.466**</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.406*</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2007</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.548**</td><td align="left">−0.814***</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2008</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">0.461*</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.622***</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2009</td><td align="left">0.575**</td><td align="left">0.686**</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.707***</td><td align="left">−0.698***</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2010</td><td align="left">0.328*</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.327*</td><td align="left">ns</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2011</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.587**</td><td align="left">−0.691***</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1996–2011</td><td align="left">0.170***</td><td align="left">0.204***</td><td align="left">ns</td><td align="left">−0.289***</td><td align="left">−0.286***</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p><italic>ns</italic> not significant</p><p>* <italic>p</italic> < 0.05; ** <italic>p</italic> < 0.01; *** <italic>p</italic> < 0.001</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p></sec><sec id="Sec8" sec-type="discussion"><title>Discussion</title><p>This study shows a clear relationship (<italic>r</italic> = −0.707; <italic>p</italic> < 0.01) between start dates of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen seasons recorded in Poznań and spring temperatures, i.e., mean temperature from the second half of March to the first half of April. These results concur with the findings of previous studies that have identified significant negative correlations between the start dates of tree pollen seasons and temperatures recorded just few weeks before pollination (Frei and Gassner <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">2008</xref>; Rodríguez-Rajo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR44">2009</xref>; Grewling et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">2012</xref>). In the case of oak pollen seasons in Poznań, we have shown that start dates occur 1.9 days earlier with every 1.0 °C increase in temperature. Interestingly, during the analyzed period (1996–2011), a significant advance of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen season start dates was noticed (−0.55 day/year; <italic>p</italic> = 0.021), which supports reported global tendencies to earlier development of many plants during the last decades due to climatic warming (Fujisawa and Kobayashi <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">2010</xref>; García-Mozo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">2010</xref>; Grab and Craparo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR25">2011</xref>; Ma and Zhou <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">2012</xref>). The recorded shift in the timing of oak pollen seasons is likely to be related to significant increases (+0.2 °C/year; <italic>p</italic> = 0.014) in mean daily temperatures between the second fortnight of March and first fortnight of April in Poznań, which is the crucial parameter for oak catkins development (Fig. <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref>b).</p><p>Such clear relationships with weather conditions were not observed with reference to the seasonal sum of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen. Statistical analysis between the SPI of oak and meteorological parameters recorded during the year of pollination in Poznań did not reveal any significant correlations. This is at odds with previously reported results from Galicia, the northwest part of Spain (García-Mozo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2006</xref>). It should be noted that in this region of Iberian Peninsula, as in Poland, the most common oak species is <italic>Q. robur</italic> (Rodríguez-Rajo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR45">2005</xref>). The observed divergence in obtained results probably reflects different adaptation of this species to local climatic conditions. On the other hand, Andersen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1980</xref>) and Corden and Millington (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">1999</xref>) showed that intensive oak pollen seasons in Western Europe are related to the high temperatures in summer months during previous growing seasons. Similarly, Emberlin et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR15">1990</xref>) linked sunny, warm autumn period with the high pollen production of many tree species the following year, including <italic>Quercus</italic>. Based on 16 years of aerobiological data, such relations were not observed in Poznań. In turn, our study revealed significant correlations between the SPI of oak and the sum of rain in the second half of March and first half of April in the year prior to flowering (<italic>r</italic> = 0.799, <italic>p</italic> < 0.001). Although the casual mechanism of this relationship is not clear, the above mentioned meteorological parameters might influence the first phases of the oak microsporogenesis that occurs in the spring 1 year before flowering (Ducousso et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR12">1993</xref>) and thereby affects the number of pollen grains produced.</p><p>The analysis of the pollen season intensity is hindered by the fact that several oak species occur in Poznań and its surroundings. Despite the fact that the most common oak species in the city is <italic>Q. robur</italic>, the other <italic>Quercus</italic> species (e.g., <italic>Q. petraea</italic> and <italic>Q. rubra</italic>) are well represented in the forests near to Poznań (Krotoska <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">1961</xref>; Żukowski et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR62">2005</xref>). In addition, almost 20 different oak species are grown in the University Botanical Garden in Poznań (about 1.5 km from the pollen-monitoring site), although many of them do not exceed the generative stage and therefore do not produce pollen (Węglarska and Węglarski <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR56">2007</xref>). Taking into account that the different oak species have different ecological requirements (Timbal and Aussenac <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR52">1996</xref>; Bugała <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR4">2006</xref>), it is reasonable to assume that the weather conditions do not have the same influence on the pollen production of different oak species. The pollen grains are morphologically similar, and so it is not possible to distinguish them under light microscope. As a result, all collected oak pollen grains were gathered together and classified on genus level in the present study. Thus, the results of statistical analysis of aerobiological data, especially intensity of pollen seasons, can be biased and should be examined carefully.</p><p>The mean SPI value, which in Poznań exceeded 1212 grains during the studied period, was similar to those observed in other sites in Poland (Weryszko-Chmielewska et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">2006</xref>) as well as in Western Europe, e.g., in the UK (Corden and Millington <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">1999</xref>), Belgium and the Netherland (Spieksma et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR49">2003</xref>). Also in Galicia (NW Spain), the intensity of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen seasons is comparable to Poznań (García-Mozo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2006</xref>). The concentration of oak pollen is, however, much higher in southern France and central Spain (Skjøth et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR48">2013</xref>) which is likely to be related to the higher number of <italic>Quercus</italic> species and wider distribution of oak trees in those areas (García-Mozo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">2006</xref>; Skjøth et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR47">2008</xref>). General trends toward increasing seasonal sums of pollen from allergenic plants have been reported in Europe (Ziello et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR61">2012</xref>), but such a trend was not seen in relation to <italic>Quercus</italic> in Poznań. This could again express the local response of this taxa to microclimate conditions in the region or be related to such factors as the length of aerobiological pollen data series that were previously discussed for <italic>Betula</italic> pollen seasons in Poznań (Grewling et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">2012</xref>). From the standpoint of sensitized patients, the large year-to year variation in SPI as well as observed advance of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen season start dates should be considered in allergy prophylaxis. In addition, it is worth emphasizing that the daily oak pollen concentrations that evoke the first allergic symptoms to oak pollen, i.e., >80 P m<sup>−3</sup> (Rapiejko et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">2007</xref>), were often exceeded during peak days and lasted for more than 1 week. Such information would be important for both patients and allergists.</p><p>Similarly, one of the most examined characteristics of oak pollen seasons, duration, also varied markedly. For instance, in 2008, the oak pollen season ended after 20 days, whereas 1 year later, the season was twice as long. The extension of the pollen season was mainly caused by an increase in daily rainfall during its second week (<italic>r</italic> = 0.719; <italic>p</italic> < 0.01), which suggests that the release of oak pollen grains from catkins is strongly hindered by rain episodes. In addition, the negative influence of rain and RH on daily concentrations of oak pollen (<italic>r</italic> = −0.289; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001 and <italic>r</italic> = −0.286; <italic>p</italic> < 0.001, respectively) agrees with previous studies (Rodríguez-Rajo et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR45">2005</xref>; Weryszko-Chmielewska et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR57">2006</xref>; Rodríguez de la Cruz et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR43">2008</xref>). In general, low relative humidity accelerates anther opening, while high relative humidity delays or inhibits the process (Carrizo García et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR6">2006</xref>).</p><p>From a physiological point of view, the opening of the anther is preceded by rarefaction of locular fluid between pollen grains, which might be caused by reabsorption of fluid through anther tissue or by evaporation. Reabsorption is programmed and regulated by the plant, whereas evaporation depends on external factors, like ambient RH, temperature and wind speed (Pacini and Hesse <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">2004</xref>; Dahl et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">2013</xref>). In the majority of a plant’s anther, opening is considered as a unidirectional process—once opened anthers are not able to close again and pollen grains are released from the anther as soon as it opens (Pacini <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">2000</xref>). On the other hand, anthers of some species can close in response to varying RH (and later re-opened again), which is likely to prevent hydration of the pollen (Edwards and Jordan <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR13">1992</xref>; Li et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">2012</xref>; Dahl et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR11">2013</xref>). Discontinuous pollen liberation due to reversible anther opening allows unfavorable conditions during pollination to be avoided and enhances pollen competence, thus making the plant better adapted to rainy flowering seasons (Li et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">2012</xref>). However, this phenomenon was only described in entomophilous plants (Edwards and Jordan <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR13">1992</xref>; Wang et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR55">2009</xref>; Li et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">2012</xref>), and there is a lack of evidences whether it occurs in wind-pollinated species, such as oak. Nevertheless, this mechanism could at least partially explain how the adverse weather conditions affect the duration of pollen seasons.</p></sec><sec id="Sec9" sec-type="conclusion"><title>Conclusions</title><p>This study supplies important information about the environmental factors that effect <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen seasons. Such information may have further applications in different scientific areas like plant physiology research, forest ecology, biometeorology and allergological prophylaxis. The significant pollen-weather relationships could also be incorporated into models predicting the impacts of future climate change on the course of oak pollen seasons in Central Europe. One of the most notable results of this study was the significant advance of <italic>Quercus</italic> pollen seasons start dates (−0.55 day/year; <italic>p</italic> = 0.021) that may be linked with recent increases in the daily mean temperatures one month before pollination (+0.2 °C/year; <italic>p</italic> = 0.014). The other characteristics of oak pollen seasons did not reveal such distinct trends. Year-to-year fluctuations in the intensity of oak pollen seasons can be partly explained by rainfall during the first phases of oak microsporogenesis (the year before pollination) that could influence pollen development. In addition, the duration of the oak pollen season can be extended by rainfall hindering pollen release, especially during the second week of pollen season. 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