Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners
Identifieur interne : 000087 ( Pmc/Checkpoint ); précédent : 000086; suivant : 000088Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners
Auteurs : Jan Baeten [Belgique] ; Koen Deforce [Belgique] ; Sophie Challe [Belgique] ; Dirk De Vos [Belgique] ; Patrick Degryse [Belgique]Source :
- PLoS ONE [ 1932-6203 ] ; 2014.
Abstract
Frankincense, the oleogum resin from
Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113142
PubMed: 25391130
PubMed Central: 4229304
Affiliations:
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<sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners</title>
<author><name sortKey="Baeten, Jan" sort="Baeten, Jan" uniqKey="Baeten J" first="Jan" last="Baeten">Jan Baeten</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff1"><addr-line>Center for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium</addr-line>
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<country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Center for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis, KU Leuven, Leuven</wicri:regionArea>
<wicri:noRegion>Leuven</wicri:noRegion>
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<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2"><addr-line>Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium</addr-line>
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<country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven</wicri:regionArea>
<wicri:noRegion>Leuven</wicri:noRegion>
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<author><name sortKey="Deforce, Koen" sort="Deforce, Koen" uniqKey="Deforce K" first="Koen" last="Deforce">Koen Deforce</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="aff3"><addr-line>OD Earth and History of Life, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels, Belgium</addr-line>
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<country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country>
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<author><name sortKey="Challe, Sophie" sort="Challe, Sophie" uniqKey="Challe S" first="Sophie" last="Challe">Sophie Challe</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff4"><addr-line>Service public de Wallonie, Direction de l’Archéologie, Jambes, Belgium</addr-line>
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<wicri:regionArea>Service public de Wallonie, Direction de l’Archéologie, Jambes</wicri:regionArea>
<wicri:noRegion>Jambes</wicri:noRegion>
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<author><name sortKey="De Vos, Dirk" sort="De Vos, Dirk" uniqKey="De Vos D" first="Dirk" last="De Vos">Dirk De Vos</name>
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<wicri:noRegion>Leuven</wicri:noRegion>
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<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2"><addr-line>Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium</addr-line>
</nlm:aff>
<country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven</wicri:regionArea>
<wicri:noRegion>Leuven</wicri:noRegion>
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<author><name sortKey="Degryse, Patrick" sort="Degryse, Patrick" uniqKey="Degryse P" first="Patrick" last="Degryse">Patrick Degryse</name>
<affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="aff2"><addr-line>Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium</addr-line>
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<country xml:lang="fr">Belgique</country>
<wicri:regionArea>Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven</wicri:regionArea>
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<series><title level="j">PLoS ONE</title>
<idno type="eISSN">1932-6203</idno>
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<front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Frankincense, the oleogum resin from <italic>Boswellia</italic>
sp., has been an early luxury good in both Western and Eastern societies and is particularly used in Christian funerary and liturgical rites. The scant grave goods in late medieval burials comprise laterally perforated pottery vessels which are usually filled with charcoal. They occur in most regions of western Europe and are interpreted as incense burners but have never been investigated with advanced analytical techniques. We herein present chemical and anthracological results on perforated funerary pots from 4 Wallonian sites dating to the 12–14<sup>th</sup>
century AD. Chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysis of lipid extracts of the ancient residues and comparison with extracts from four <italic>Boswellia</italic>
species clearly evidence the presence of degraded frankincense in the former, based on characteristic triterpenoids, <italic>viz.</italic>
boswellic and tirucallic acids, and their myriad dehydrated and oxygenated derivatives. Cembrane-type diterpenoids indicate <italic>B. sacra</italic>
(southern Arabia) and <italic>B. serrata</italic>
(India) as possible botanical origins. Furthermore, traces of juniper and possibly pine tar demonstrate that small amounts of locally available fragrances were mixed with frankincense, most likely to reduce its cost. Additionally, markers of ruminant fats in one sample from a domestic context indicate that this vessel was used for food preparation. Anthracological analysis demonstrates that the charcoal was used as fuel only and that no fragrant wood species were burned. The chars derived from local woody plants and were most likely recovered from domestic fires. Furthermore, vessel recycling is indicated by both contextual and biomarker evidence. The results shed a new light on funerary practices in the Middle Ages and at the same time reveal useful insights into the chemistry of burned frankincense. The discovery of novel biomarkers, namely Δ<sup>2</sup>
-boswellic acids and a series of polyunsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons, demonstrates the high potential for organic chemical analyses of incense residues.</p>
</div>
</front>
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<pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS One</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS ONE</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id>
<journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plosone</journal-id>
<journal-title-group><journal-title>PLoS ONE</journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">1932-6203</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>San Francisco, USA</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25391130</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4229304</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PONE-D-14-23755</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0113142</article-id>
<article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject>
</subj-group>
<subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2"><subject>Physical Sciences</subject>
<subj-group><subject>Chemistry</subject>
<subj-group><subject>Analytical Chemistry</subject>
<subj-group><subject>Mass Spectrometry</subject>
<subj-group><subject>Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry</subject>
<subject>Mass Spectra</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
<subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2"><subject>Research and Analysis Methods</subject>
<subj-group><subject>Chromatographic Techniques</subject>
</subj-group>
<subj-group><subject>Spectrum Analysis Techniques</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
<subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v2"><subject>Social Sciences</subject>
<subj-group><subject>Archaeology</subject>
<subj-group><subject>Archaeometry</subject>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group><article-title>Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners</article-title>
<alt-title alt-title-type="running-head">Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites</alt-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Baeten</surname>
<given-names>Jan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Deforce</surname>
<given-names>Koen</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Challe</surname>
<given-names>Sophie</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>De Vos</surname>
<given-names>Dirk</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor1"><sup>*</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Degryse</surname>
<given-names>Patrick</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1"><label>1</label>
<addr-line>Center for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2"><label>2</label>
<addr-line>Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3"><label>3</label>
<addr-line>OD Earth and History of Life, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels, Belgium</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4"><label>4</label>
<addr-line>Service public de Wallonie, Direction de l’Archéologie, Jambes, Belgium</addr-line>
</aff>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Macchiarelli</surname>
<given-names>Roberto</given-names>
</name>
<role>Editor</role>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="edit1"><addr-line>Université de Poitiers, France</addr-line>
</aff>
<author-notes><corresp id="cor1">* E-mail: <email>dirk.devos@biw.kuleuven.be</email>
</corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict"><p><bold>Competing Interests: </bold>
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.</p>
</fn>
<fn fn-type="con"><p>Conceived and designed the experiments: JB KD SC DDV PD. Performed the experiments: JB KD SC. Analyzed the data: JB KD SC. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: SC DDV PD. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: JB KD SC DDV PD.</p>
</fn>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>12</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2014</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>9</volume>
<issue>11</issue>
<elocation-id>e113142</elocation-id>
<history><date date-type="received"><day>11</day>
<month>6</month>
<year>2014</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted"><day>23</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2014</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions><copyright-year>2014</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder>Baeten et al</copyright-holder>
<license><license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution License</ext-link>
, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract><p>Frankincense, the oleogum resin from <italic>Boswellia</italic>
sp., has been an early luxury good in both Western and Eastern societies and is particularly used in Christian funerary and liturgical rites. The scant grave goods in late medieval burials comprise laterally perforated pottery vessels which are usually filled with charcoal. They occur in most regions of western Europe and are interpreted as incense burners but have never been investigated with advanced analytical techniques. We herein present chemical and anthracological results on perforated funerary pots from 4 Wallonian sites dating to the 12–14<sup>th</sup>
century AD. Chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysis of lipid extracts of the ancient residues and comparison with extracts from four <italic>Boswellia</italic>
species clearly evidence the presence of degraded frankincense in the former, based on characteristic triterpenoids, <italic>viz.</italic>
boswellic and tirucallic acids, and their myriad dehydrated and oxygenated derivatives. Cembrane-type diterpenoids indicate <italic>B. sacra</italic>
(southern Arabia) and <italic>B. serrata</italic>
(India) as possible botanical origins. Furthermore, traces of juniper and possibly pine tar demonstrate that small amounts of locally available fragrances were mixed with frankincense, most likely to reduce its cost. Additionally, markers of ruminant fats in one sample from a domestic context indicate that this vessel was used for food preparation. Anthracological analysis demonstrates that the charcoal was used as fuel only and that no fragrant wood species were burned. The chars derived from local woody plants and were most likely recovered from domestic fires. Furthermore, vessel recycling is indicated by both contextual and biomarker evidence. The results shed a new light on funerary practices in the Middle Ages and at the same time reveal useful insights into the chemistry of burned frankincense. The discovery of novel biomarkers, namely Δ<sup>2</sup>
-boswellic acids and a series of polyunsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons, demonstrates the high potential for organic chemical analyses of incense residues.</p>
</abstract>
<funding-group><funding-statement>This research was supported by the Belgian Programme on Interuniversity Poles of Attraction (IAP 7/09, iap-cores.be), the special research fund of the KU Leuven (Centre for Archaeological Sciences, ees.kuleuven.be/cas) and the Research Foundation - Flanders (G.0486.12, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.fwo.be">www.fwo.be</ext-link>
). The Research Foundation - Flanders is acknowledged for enabling the acquisition of a new GC-MS instrument. The other funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
<counts><page-count count="18"></page-count>
</counts>
<custom-meta-group><custom-meta id="data-availability"><meta-name>Data Availability</meta-name>
<meta-value>The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.</meta-value>
</custom-meta>
</custom-meta-group>
</article-meta>
<notes><title>Data Availability</title>
<p>The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.</p>
</notes>
</front>
</pmc>
<affiliations><list><country><li>Belgique</li>
</country>
<region><li>Région de Bruxelles-Capitale</li>
</region>
<settlement><li>Bruxelles</li>
</settlement>
</list>
<tree><country name="Belgique"><noRegion><name sortKey="Baeten, Jan" sort="Baeten, Jan" uniqKey="Baeten J" first="Jan" last="Baeten">Jan Baeten</name>
</noRegion>
<name sortKey="Baeten, Jan" sort="Baeten, Jan" uniqKey="Baeten J" first="Jan" last="Baeten">Jan Baeten</name>
<name sortKey="Challe, Sophie" sort="Challe, Sophie" uniqKey="Challe S" first="Sophie" last="Challe">Sophie Challe</name>
<name sortKey="De Vos, Dirk" sort="De Vos, Dirk" uniqKey="De Vos D" first="Dirk" last="De Vos">Dirk De Vos</name>
<name sortKey="De Vos, Dirk" sort="De Vos, Dirk" uniqKey="De Vos D" first="Dirk" last="De Vos">Dirk De Vos</name>
<name sortKey="Deforce, Koen" sort="Deforce, Koen" uniqKey="Deforce K" first="Koen" last="Deforce">Koen Deforce</name>
<name sortKey="Degryse, Patrick" sort="Degryse, Patrick" uniqKey="Degryse P" first="Patrick" last="Degryse">Patrick Degryse</name>
</country>
</tree>
</affiliations>
</record>
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