Origin and history of grasslands in Central Europe – a review
Identifieur interne : 001002 ( Istex/Corpus ); précédent : 001001; suivant : 001003Origin and history of grasslands in Central Europe – a review
Auteurs : M. Hejcman ; P. Hejcmanová ; V. Pavlů ; J. BenešSource :
- Grass and Forage Science [ 0142-5242 ] ; 2013-09.
Abstract
In terms of origin, grasslands in Central Europe can be classified into (i) natural grasslands, predetermined by environmental conditions and wild herbivores; (ii) seminatural grasslands, associated with long‐term human activity from the beginning of agriculture during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition; and (iii) improved (intensive) grasslands, a product of modern agriculture based on sown and highly productive forage grasses and legumes. This review discusses the origin, history and development of grasslands in Central Europe from the Holocene (9500 BC) to recent times, using archaeobotanical (pollen and macroremains), archaeozoological (molluscs, dung beetles, animal bones) and archaeological evidence, together with written and iconographic resources and recent analogies. An indicator of grasslands is the ratio of non‐arboreal/arboreal pollen and the presence of pollen of species such as Plantago lanceolata and Urtica dioica in sediments. Pastures can be indicated by Juniperus communis pollen and charcoal present in sediments and the soil profile. Insect‐pollinated species can be studied using cesspit sediments and pollen (from honey) in vessels in graves. In Central Europe, natural steppe, alluvial grasslands and alpine grasslands occurred before the start of agriculture in the early Neolithic (5500 BC); their area was small, and grassland patches were fragmentary in the forested landscape. Substantial enlargement of grasslands cannot be expected to have occurred before the late Bronze Age. The first scythes come from the 7th–6th century BC; therefore, hay meadows probably did not develop before this time. There is evidence of hay meadows in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, documented by macroremains of Arrhenatherum elatius in sediments, written records and long scythes in archaeological assemblages. Based on macroremains analyses, we conclude that there was generally high diversity of seminatural grasslands in the cultural landscape in the Middle Ages, and individual grassland communities were generally species rich. From the beginning of the agriculture until the 18th century, pastures and pasture forests were dominant sources of forage. Large‐scale enlargement of hay meadows and decline of pastures in many regions occurred from the 18th century. Hay making is associated with enlargement of arable fields and the use of cattle as draught animals for ploughing and soil preparation. The spread of A. elatius in Central Europe was enabled by the decline of grazing management and an increased proportion of hay meadows in the 18th and 19th centuries. In some mountain areas, there are no records of large‐scale deforestation and enlargement of grasslands until the 14th century, and the peak of the agriculturally used area was recorded for the period from the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. Grasslands were converted into arable land during periods of war; conversely, grasslands replaced arable land after the collapse of agriculture in many regions of former communist countries following political regime change in the 1990s. The dynamics of the grassland area reflect the development of human society and the political situation, because grasslands are an integral part of the cultural landscape in Central Europe.
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DOI: 10.1111/gfs.12066
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<front><div type="abstract">In terms of origin, grasslands in Central Europe can be classified into (i) natural grasslands, predetermined by environmental conditions and wild herbivores; (ii) seminatural grasslands, associated with long‐term human activity from the beginning of agriculture during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition; and (iii) improved (intensive) grasslands, a product of modern agriculture based on sown and highly productive forage grasses and legumes. This review discusses the origin, history and development of grasslands in Central Europe from the Holocene (9500 BC) to recent times, using archaeobotanical (pollen and macroremains), archaeozoological (molluscs, dung beetles, animal bones) and archaeological evidence, together with written and iconographic resources and recent analogies. An indicator of grasslands is the ratio of non‐arboreal/arboreal pollen and the presence of pollen of species such as Plantago lanceolata and Urtica dioica in sediments. Pastures can be indicated by Juniperus communis pollen and charcoal present in sediments and the soil profile. Insect‐pollinated species can be studied using cesspit sediments and pollen (from honey) in vessels in graves. In Central Europe, natural steppe, alluvial grasslands and alpine grasslands occurred before the start of agriculture in the early Neolithic (5500 BC); their area was small, and grassland patches were fragmentary in the forested landscape. Substantial enlargement of grasslands cannot be expected to have occurred before the late Bronze Age. The first scythes come from the 7th–6th century BC; therefore, hay meadows probably did not develop before this time. There is evidence of hay meadows in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, documented by macroremains of Arrhenatherum elatius in sediments, written records and long scythes in archaeological assemblages. Based on macroremains analyses, we conclude that there was generally high diversity of seminatural grasslands in the cultural landscape in the Middle Ages, and individual grassland communities were generally species rich. From the beginning of the agriculture until the 18th century, pastures and pasture forests were dominant sources of forage. Large‐scale enlargement of hay meadows and decline of pastures in many regions occurred from the 18th century. Hay making is associated with enlargement of arable fields and the use of cattle as draught animals for ploughing and soil preparation. The spread of A. elatius in Central Europe was enabled by the decline of grazing management and an increased proportion of hay meadows in the 18th and 19th centuries. In some mountain areas, there are no records of large‐scale deforestation and enlargement of grasslands until the 14th century, and the peak of the agriculturally used area was recorded for the period from the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. Grasslands were converted into arable land during periods of war; conversely, grasslands replaced arable land after the collapse of agriculture in many regions of former communist countries following political regime change in the 1990s. The dynamics of the grassland area reflect the development of human society and the political situation, because grasslands are an integral part of the cultural landscape in Central Europe.</div>
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<abstract>In terms of origin, grasslands in Central Europe can be classified into (i) natural grasslands, predetermined by environmental conditions and wild herbivores; (ii) seminatural grasslands, associated with long‐term human activity from the beginning of agriculture during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition; and (iii) improved (intensive) grasslands, a product of modern agriculture based on sown and highly productive forage grasses and legumes. This review discusses the origin, history and development of grasslands in Central Europe from the Holocene (9500 BC) to recent times, using archaeobotanical (pollen and macroremains), archaeozoological (molluscs, dung beetles, animal bones) and archaeological evidence, together with written and iconographic resources and recent analogies. An indicator of grasslands is the ratio of non‐arboreal/arboreal pollen and the presence of pollen of species such as Plantago lanceolata and Urtica dioica in sediments. Pastures can be indicated by Juniperus communis pollen and charcoal present in sediments and the soil profile. Insect‐pollinated species can be studied using cesspit sediments and pollen (from honey) in vessels in graves. In Central Europe, natural steppe, alluvial grasslands and alpine grasslands occurred before the start of agriculture in the early Neolithic (5500 BC); their area was small, and grassland patches were fragmentary in the forested landscape. Substantial enlargement of grasslands cannot be expected to have occurred before the late Bronze Age. The first scythes come from the 7th–6th century BC; therefore, hay meadows probably did not develop before this time. There is evidence of hay meadows in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, documented by macroremains of Arrhenatherum elatius in sediments, written records and long scythes in archaeological assemblages. Based on macroremains analyses, we conclude that there was generally high diversity of seminatural grasslands in the cultural landscape in the Middle Ages, and individual grassland communities were generally species rich. From the beginning of the agriculture until the 18th century, pastures and pasture forests were dominant sources of forage. Large‐scale enlargement of hay meadows and decline of pastures in many regions occurred from the 18th century. Hay making is associated with enlargement of arable fields and the use of cattle as draught animals for ploughing and soil preparation. The spread of A. elatius in Central Europe was enabled by the decline of grazing management and an increased proportion of hay meadows in the 18th and 19th centuries. In some mountain areas, there are no records of large‐scale deforestation and enlargement of grasslands until the 14th century, and the peak of the agriculturally used area was recorded for the period from the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. Grasslands were converted into arable land during periods of war; conversely, grasslands replaced arable land after the collapse of agriculture in many regions of former communist countries following political regime change in the 1990s. The dynamics of the grassland area reflect the development of human society and the political situation, because grasslands are an integral part of the cultural landscape in Central Europe.</abstract>
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<notesStmt><note>Figure S1. Schematic phytogeographical division of Europe into main floral provinces. Figure S2. (a) Expositional steppe grasslands of natural origin can be recorded in the NW part of the Czech Republic on south‐facing slopes on basic‐rich volcanic soils. The border between steppe grassland and forest with Quercus robur, Q. petrea and Carpinus betulus is very sharp and fully corresponds to similar borders between expositional steppe grasslands and (b) Acer platanoides forests in the South Ural Mts. (Russia) or (c) to Betula pendula forests in the Altai Mts. (South Siberia, Russia, photograph Michal Hejcman, Milan Chytrý and Pavla Hejcmanová). Figure S3. (a) Beaver dam on a small river in the western part of the Czech Republic. In the background are visible dead waterlogged trees of Alnus glutinosa. (b) Male of European bison damaging Larix sibirica tree in Cherga enclosure the Altai Mts., South Siberia, Russia. (c) Tree of Betula pendula heavily damaged by European bison in Cherga Reserve (photograph Aleš Vorel, Michal Hejcman and Pavla Hejcmanová). Figure S4. Although subalpine Nardus stricta grasslands are considered to be natural in the Giant Mts., they were substantially enlarged by agricultural activities in 16th–19th centuries by cutting of Pinus mugo shrubs (see Hejcman et al., ). Figure S5. Cover of Plantago lanceolata in control (C) and other fertilizer treatments in the Rengen Grassland Experiment in late June 2011. Figure S6. Remnants of low‐productive pastures with shrubs of Juniperus communis subsp. communis surrounded by improved grasslands in the Eifel Mountains in SW Germany (photograph Michal Hejcman). Figure S7. Total agricultural area, area of grasslands and area of arable land in the village of Oldřichov v Hájích in the period from 1651 to 2009. Figure S8. Livestock units (one LU is 500 kg of live weight) in the village of Oldřichov v Hájích over the period from 1654 to 2009.</note>
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<affiliation>Faculty of Arts, Institute of Prehistory and Early History, Charles University Prague, České Budějovice, Czech Republic</affiliation>
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<author xml:id="author-3"><persName><forename type="first">V.</forename>
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<abstract><p>In terms of origin, grasslands in Central Europe can be classified into (i) natural grasslands, predetermined by environmental conditions and wild herbivores; (ii) seminatural grasslands, associated with long‐term human activity from the beginning of agriculture during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition; and (iii) improved (intensive) grasslands, a product of modern agriculture based on sown and highly productive forage grasses and legumes. This review discusses the origin, history and development of grasslands in Central Europe from the Holocene (9500 BC) to recent times, using archaeobotanical (pollen and macroremains), archaeozoological (molluscs, dung beetles, animal bones) and archaeological evidence, together with written and iconographic resources and recent analogies. An indicator of grasslands is the ratio of non‐arboreal/arboreal pollen and the presence of pollen of species such as Plantago lanceolata and Urtica dioica in sediments. Pastures can be indicated by Juniperus communis pollen and charcoal present in sediments and the soil profile. Insect‐pollinated species can be studied using cesspit sediments and pollen (from honey) in vessels in graves. In Central Europe, natural steppe, alluvial grasslands and alpine grasslands occurred before the start of agriculture in the early Neolithic (5500 BC); their area was small, and grassland patches were fragmentary in the forested landscape. Substantial enlargement of grasslands cannot be expected to have occurred before the late Bronze Age. The first scythes come from the 7th–6th century BC; therefore, hay meadows probably did not develop before this time. There is evidence of hay meadows in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, documented by macroremains of Arrhenatherum elatius in sediments, written records and long scythes in archaeological assemblages. Based on macroremains analyses, we conclude that there was generally high diversity of seminatural grasslands in the cultural landscape in the Middle Ages, and individual grassland communities were generally species rich. From the beginning of the agriculture until the 18th century, pastures and pasture forests were dominant sources of forage. Large‐scale enlargement of hay meadows and decline of pastures in many regions occurred from the 18th century. Hay making is associated with enlargement of arable fields and the use of cattle as draught animals for ploughing and soil preparation. The spread of A. elatius in Central Europe was enabled by the decline of grazing management and an increased proportion of hay meadows in the 18th and 19th centuries. In some mountain areas, there are no records of large‐scale deforestation and enlargement of grasslands until the 14th century, and the peak of the agriculturally used area was recorded for the period from the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. Grasslands were converted into arable land during periods of war; conversely, grasslands replaced arable land after the collapse of agriculture in many regions of former communist countries following political regime change in the 1990s. The dynamics of the grassland area reflect the development of human society and the political situation, because grasslands are an integral part of the cultural landscape in Central Europe.</p>
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<correspondenceTo><lineatedText><line><i>Correspondence to</i>
: M. Hejcman, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Department of Ecology, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, CZ 165 21 Prague 6 – Suchdol, Czech Republic.</line>
<line>E‐mail: <email>hejcman@fzp.czu.cz</email>
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<contentMeta><titleGroup><title type="main">Origin and history of grasslands in <fc>C</fc>
entral <fc>E</fc>
urope – a review</title>
<title type="shortAuthors">M. Hejcman <i>et al</i>
.</title>
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<familyName>Pavlů</familyName>
</personName>
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<creator affiliationRef="#gfs12066-aff-0005" creatorRole="author" xml:id="gfs12066-cr-0004"><personName><givenNames>J.</givenNames>
<familyName>Beneš</familyName>
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<affiliationGroup><affiliation countryCode="CZ" type="organization" xml:id="gfs12066-aff-0001"><orgDiv>Faculty of Environmental Sciences</orgDiv>
<orgDiv>Department of Ecology</orgDiv>
<orgName>Czech University of Life Sciences Prague</orgName>
<address><city>České Budějovice</city>
<country>Czech Republic</country>
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<address><city>České Budějovice</city>
<country>Czech Republic</country>
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<address><city>České Budějovice</city>
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<orgName>Czech University of Life Sciences Prague</orgName>
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<country>Czech Republic</country>
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<orgName>University of South Bohemia</orgName>
<address><city>České Budějovice</city>
<country>Czech Republic</country>
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<keywordGroup type="author"><keyword xml:id="gfs12066-kwd-0001">Holocene</keyword>
<keyword xml:id="gfs12066-kwd-0002">pastures</keyword>
<keyword xml:id="gfs12066-kwd-0003">meadows</keyword>
<keyword xml:id="gfs12066-kwd-0004">pollen analysis</keyword>
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<caption><p><b>Figure S1.</b>
Schematic phytogeographical division of Europe into main floral provinces.</p>
<p><b>Figure S2.</b>
(a) Expositional steppe grasslands of natural origin can be recorded in the NW part of the Czech Republic on south‐facing slopes on basic‐rich volcanic soils. The border between steppe grassland and forest with <i>Quercus robur</i>
,<i> Q. petrea</i>
and <i>Carpinus betulus</i>
is very sharp and fully corresponds to similar borders between expositional steppe grasslands and (b) <i>Acer platanoides</i>
forests in the South Ural Mts. (Russia) or (c) to <i>Betula pendula</i>
forests in the Altai Mts. (South Siberia, Russia, photograph Michal Hejcman, Milan Chytrý and Pavla Hejcmanová).</p>
<p><b>Figure S3.</b>
(a) Beaver dam on a small river in the western part of the Czech Republic. In the background are visible dead waterlogged trees of <i>Alnus glutinosa</i>
. (b) Male of European bison damaging <i>Larix sibirica</i>
tree in Cherga enclosure the Altai Mts., South Siberia, Russia. (c) Tree of <i>Betula pendula</i>
heavily damaged by European bison in Cherga Reserve (photograph Aleš Vorel, Michal Hejcman and Pavla Hejcmanová).</p>
<p><b>Figure S4.</b>
Although subalpine <i>Nardus stricta</i>
grasslands are considered to be natural in the Giant Mts., they were substantially enlarged by agricultural activities in 16th–19th centuries by cutting of <i>Pinus mugo</i>
shrubs (see Hejcman <i>et al</i>
., <link href="#gfs12066-bib-0045"></link>
).</p>
<p><b>Figure S5.</b>
Cover of <i>Plantago lanceolata</i>
in control (C) and other fertilizer treatments in the Rengen Grassland Experiment in late June 2011.</p>
<p><b>Figure S6.</b>
Remnants of low‐productive pastures with shrubs of <i>Juniperus communis</i>
subsp. <i>communis</i>
surrounded by improved grasslands in the Eifel Mountains in SW Germany (photograph Michal Hejcman).</p>
<p><b>Figure S7.</b>
Total agricultural area, area of grasslands and area of arable land in the village of Oldřichov v Hájích in the period from 1651 to 2009.</p>
<p><b>Figure S8.</b>
Livestock units (one LU is 500 kg of live weight) in the village of Oldřichov v Hájích over the period from 1654 to 2009.</p>
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<abstractGroup><abstract type="main" xml:id="gfs12066-abs-0001"><title type="main">Abstract</title>
<p>In terms of origin, grasslands in <fc>C</fc>
entral <fc>E</fc>
urope can be classified into (i) natural grasslands, predetermined by environmental conditions and wild herbivores; (ii) seminatural grasslands, associated with long‐term human activity from the beginning of agriculture during the <fc>M</fc>
esolithic–<fc>N</fc>
eolithic transition; and (iii) improved (intensive) grasslands, a product of modern agriculture based on sown and highly productive forage grasses and legumes. This review discusses the origin, history and development of grasslands in <fc>C</fc>
entral <fc>E</fc>
urope from the <fc>H</fc>
olocene (9500 <fc>BC</fc>
) to recent times, using archaeobotanical (pollen and macroremains), archaeozoological (molluscs, dung beetles, animal bones) and archaeological evidence, together with written and iconographic resources and recent analogies. An indicator of grasslands is the ratio of non‐arboreal/arboreal pollen and the presence of pollen of species such as <i><fc>P</fc>
lantago lanceolata</i>
and <i><fc>U</fc>
rtica dioica</i>
in sediments. Pastures can be indicated by <i><fc>J</fc>
uniperus communis</i>
pollen and charcoal present in sediments and the soil profile. Insect‐pollinated species can be studied using cesspit sediments and pollen (from honey) in vessels in graves. In <fc>C</fc>
entral <fc>E</fc>
urope, natural steppe, alluvial grasslands and alpine grasslands occurred before the start of agriculture in the early Neolithic (5500 <fc>BC</fc>
); their area was small, and grassland patches were fragmentary in the forested landscape. Substantial enlargement of grasslands cannot be expected to have occurred before the late <fc>B</fc>
ronze <fc>A</fc>
ge. The first scythes come from the 7th–6th century <fc>BC</fc>
; therefore, hay meadows probably did not develop before this time. There is evidence of hay meadows in <fc>C</fc>
entral <fc>E</fc>
urope during the <fc>M</fc>
iddle <fc>A</fc>
ges, documented by macroremains of <i><fc>A</fc>
rrhenatherum elatius</i>
in sediments, written records and long scythes in archaeological assemblages. Based on macroremains analyses, we conclude that there was generally high diversity of seminatural grasslands in the cultural landscape in the <fc>M</fc>
iddle <fc>A</fc>
ges, and individual grassland communities were generally species rich. From the beginning of the agriculture until the 18th century, pastures and pasture forests were dominant sources of forage. Large‐scale enlargement of hay meadows and decline of pastures in many regions occurred from the 18th century. Hay making is associated with enlargement of arable fields and the use of cattle as draught animals for ploughing and soil preparation. The spread of <i><fc>A</fc>
. elatius</i>
in <fc>C</fc>
entral <fc>E</fc>
urope was enabled by the decline of grazing management and an increased proportion of hay meadows in the 18th and 19th centuries. In some mountain areas, there are no records of large‐scale deforestation and enlargement of grasslands until the 14th century, and the peak of the agriculturally used area was recorded for the period from the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. Grasslands were converted into arable land during periods of war; conversely, grasslands replaced arable land after the collapse of agriculture in many regions of former communist countries following political regime change in the 1990s. The dynamics of the grassland area reflect the development of human society and the political situation, because grasslands are an integral part of the cultural landscape in <fc>C</fc>
entral <fc>E</fc>
urope.</p>
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<abstract>In terms of origin, grasslands in Central Europe can be classified into (i) natural grasslands, predetermined by environmental conditions and wild herbivores; (ii) seminatural grasslands, associated with long‐term human activity from the beginning of agriculture during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition; and (iii) improved (intensive) grasslands, a product of modern agriculture based on sown and highly productive forage grasses and legumes. This review discusses the origin, history and development of grasslands in Central Europe from the Holocene (9500 BC) to recent times, using archaeobotanical (pollen and macroremains), archaeozoological (molluscs, dung beetles, animal bones) and archaeological evidence, together with written and iconographic resources and recent analogies. An indicator of grasslands is the ratio of non‐arboreal/arboreal pollen and the presence of pollen of species such as Plantago lanceolata and Urtica dioica in sediments. Pastures can be indicated by Juniperus communis pollen and charcoal present in sediments and the soil profile. Insect‐pollinated species can be studied using cesspit sediments and pollen (from honey) in vessels in graves. In Central Europe, natural steppe, alluvial grasslands and alpine grasslands occurred before the start of agriculture in the early Neolithic (5500 BC); their area was small, and grassland patches were fragmentary in the forested landscape. Substantial enlargement of grasslands cannot be expected to have occurred before the late Bronze Age. The first scythes come from the 7th–6th century BC; therefore, hay meadows probably did not develop before this time. There is evidence of hay meadows in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, documented by macroremains of Arrhenatherum elatius in sediments, written records and long scythes in archaeological assemblages. Based on macroremains analyses, we conclude that there was generally high diversity of seminatural grasslands in the cultural landscape in the Middle Ages, and individual grassland communities were generally species rich. From the beginning of the agriculture until the 18th century, pastures and pasture forests were dominant sources of forage. Large‐scale enlargement of hay meadows and decline of pastures in many regions occurred from the 18th century. Hay making is associated with enlargement of arable fields and the use of cattle as draught animals for ploughing and soil preparation. The spread of A. elatius in Central Europe was enabled by the decline of grazing management and an increased proportion of hay meadows in the 18th and 19th centuries. In some mountain areas, there are no records of large‐scale deforestation and enlargement of grasslands until the 14th century, and the peak of the agriculturally used area was recorded for the period from the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. Grasslands were converted into arable land during periods of war; conversely, grasslands replaced arable land after the collapse of agriculture in many regions of former communist countries following political regime change in the 1990s. The dynamics of the grassland area reflect the development of human society and the political situation, because grasslands are an integral part of the cultural landscape in Central Europe.</abstract>
<note type="additional physical form">Figure S1. Schematic phytogeographical division of Europe into main floral provinces. Figure S2. (a) Expositional steppe grasslands of natural origin can be recorded in the NW part of the Czech Republic on south‐facing slopes on basic‐rich volcanic soils. The border between steppe grassland and forest with Quercus robur, Q. petrea and Carpinus betulus is very sharp and fully corresponds to similar borders between expositional steppe grasslands and (b) Acer platanoides forests in the South Ural Mts. (Russia) or (c) to Betula pendula forests in the Altai Mts. (South Siberia, Russia, photograph Michal Hejcman, Milan Chytrý and Pavla Hejcmanová). Figure S3. (a) Beaver dam on a small river in the western part of the Czech Republic. In the background are visible dead waterlogged trees of Alnus glutinosa. (b) Male of European bison damaging Larix sibirica tree in Cherga enclosure the Altai Mts., South Siberia, Russia. (c) Tree of Betula pendula heavily damaged by European bison in Cherga Reserve (photograph Aleš Vorel, Michal Hejcman and Pavla Hejcmanová). Figure S4. Although subalpine Nardus stricta grasslands are considered to be natural in the Giant Mts., they were substantially enlarged by agricultural activities in 16th–19th centuries by cutting of Pinus mugo shrubs (see Hejcman et al., ). Figure S5. Cover of Plantago lanceolata in control (C) and other fertilizer treatments in the Rengen Grassland Experiment in late June 2011. Figure S6. Remnants of low‐productive pastures with shrubs of Juniperus communis subsp. communis surrounded by improved grasslands in the Eifel Mountains in SW Germany (photograph Michal Hejcman). Figure S7. Total agricultural area, area of grasslands and area of arable land in the village of Oldřichov v Hájích in the period from 1651 to 2009. Figure S8. Livestock units (one LU is 500 kg of live weight) in the village of Oldřichov v Hájích over the period from 1654 to 2009.</note>
<subject><genre>keywords</genre>
<topic>Holocene</topic>
<topic>pastures</topic>
<topic>meadows</topic>
<topic>pollen analysis</topic>
<topic>prehistory</topic>
<topic>Middle Ages</topic>
</subject>
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