Late glacial initiation of Holocene eastern Mediterranean sapropel formation.
Identifieur interne : 002A08 ( PubMed/Checkpoint ); précédent : 002A07; suivant : 002A09Late glacial initiation of Holocene eastern Mediterranean sapropel formation.
Auteurs : Rosina Grimm [Allemagne] ; Ernst Maier-Reimer [Allemagne] ; Uwe Mikolajewicz [Allemagne] ; Gerhard Schmiedl [Allemagne] ; Katharina Müller-Navarra [Allemagne] ; Fanny Adloff [France] ; Katharine M. Grant [Australie] ; Martin Ziegler [Pays-Bas] ; Lucas J. Lourens [Pays-Bas] ; Kay-Christian Emeis [Allemagne]Source :
- Nature communications [ 2041-1723 ] ; 2015.
Descripteurs français
- KwdFr :
- MESH :
English descriptors
- KwdEn :
- MESH :
- chemical : Benzopyrans, Humic Substances, Oxygen.
- geographic : Mediterranean Sea.
- chemistry : Seawater.
- Carbon Cycle, Foraminifera, Geologic Sediments, Ice Cover, Models, Theoretical, Radiometric Dating.
Abstract
Recurrent deposition of organic-rich sediment layers (sapropels) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea is caused by complex interactions between climatic and biogeochemical processes. Disentangling these influences is therefore important for Mediterranean palaeo-studies in particular, and for understanding ocean feedback processes in general. Crucially, sapropels are diagnostic of anoxic deep-water phases, which have been attributed to deep-water stagnation, enhanced biological production or both. Here we use an ocean-biogeochemical model to test the effects of commonly proposed climatic and biogeochemical causes for sapropel S1. Our results indicate that deep-water anoxia requires a long prelude of deep-water stagnation, with no particularly strong eutrophication. The model-derived time frame agrees with foraminiferal δ(13)C records that imply cessation of deep-water renewal from at least Heinrich event 1 to the early Holocene. The simulated low particulate organic carbon burial flux agrees with pre-sapropel reconstructions. Our results offer a mechanistic explanation of glacial-interglacial influence on sapropel formation.
DOI: 10.1038/ncomms8099
PubMed: 26028337
Affiliations:
- Allemagne, Australie, France, Pays-Bas
- Hambourg, Midi-Pyrénées, Occitanie (région administrative)
- Hambourg, Toulouse
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Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 53, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea>Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 53, Hamburg 20146</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>20146</wicri:noRegion><placeName><settlement type="city">Hambourg</settlement><region type="land" nuts="2">Hambourg</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mikolajewicz, Uwe" sort="Mikolajewicz, Uwe" uniqKey="Mikolajewicz U" first="Uwe" last="Mikolajewicz">Uwe Mikolajewicz</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 53, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea>Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 53, Hamburg 20146</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>20146</wicri:noRegion><placeName><settlement type="city">Hambourg</settlement><region type="land" nuts="2">Hambourg</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Schmiedl, Gerhard" sort="Schmiedl, Gerhard" uniqKey="Schmiedl G" first="Gerhard" last="Schmiedl">Gerhard Schmiedl</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>20146</wicri:noRegion><placeName><settlement type="city">Hambourg</settlement><region type="land" nuts="2">Hambourg</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Muller Navarra, Katharina" sort="Muller Navarra, Katharina" uniqKey="Muller Navarra K" first="Katharina" last="Müller-Navarra">Katharina Müller-Navarra</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>20146</wicri:noRegion><placeName><settlement type="city">Hambourg</settlement><region type="land" nuts="2">Hambourg</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Adloff, Fanny" sort="Adloff, Fanny" uniqKey="Adloff F" first="Fanny" last="Adloff">Fanny Adloff</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>CNRM-GAME, Météo-France, CNRS, 42 avenue G. Coriolis, Toulouse 31057, France.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">France</country><wicri:regionArea>CNRM-GAME, Météo-France, CNRS, 42 avenue G. Coriolis, Toulouse 31057</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>31057</wicri:noRegion><placeName><settlement type="city">Toulouse</settlement><region type="region" nuts="2">Occitanie (région administrative)</region><region type="old region" nuts="2">Midi-Pyrénées</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Grant, Katharine M" sort="Grant, Katharine M" uniqKey="Grant K" first="Katharine M" last="Grant">Katharine M. Grant</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Australian Capital Territory 0200</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ziegler, Martin" sort="Ziegler, Martin" uniqKey="Ziegler M" first="Martin" last="Ziegler">Martin Ziegler</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>1] ETH Zürich, Geological Institute, Sonneggstrasse 5, Zürich 8092, Switzerland [2] Department of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, Budapestlaan 455, Utrecht 3584 CD, The Netherlands.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>1] ETH Zürich, Geological Institute, Sonneggstrasse 5, Zürich 8092, Switzerland [2] Department of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, Budapestlaan 455, Utrecht 3584 CD</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Utrecht 3584 CD</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Lourens, Lucas J" sort="Lourens, Lucas J" uniqKey="Lourens L" first="Lucas J" last="Lourens">Lucas J. Lourens</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Department of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, Budapestlaan 455, Utrecht 3584 CD, The Netherlands.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, Budapestlaan 455, Utrecht 3584 CD</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Utrecht 3584 CD</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Emeis, Kay Christian" sort="Emeis, Kay Christian" uniqKey="Emeis K" first="Kay-Christian" last="Emeis">Kay-Christian Emeis</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>1] Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146, Germany [2] Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Institute of Coastal Research, Max-Planck-Strasse 1, Geesthacht 21502, Germany.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea>1] Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146, Germany [2] Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Institute of Coastal Research, Max-Planck-Strasse 1, Geesthacht 21502</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>21502</wicri:noRegion><wicri:noRegion>21502</wicri:noRegion><wicri:noRegion>Geesthacht 21502</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Nature communications</title><idno type="eISSN">2041-1723</idno><imprint><date when="2015" type="published">2015</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass><keywords scheme="KwdEn" xml:lang="en"><term>Benzopyrans</term><term>Carbon Cycle</term><term>Foraminifera</term><term>Geologic Sediments</term><term>Humic Substances</term><term>Ice Cover</term><term>Mediterranean Sea</term><term>Models, Theoretical</term><term>Oxygen</term><term>Radiometric Dating</term><term>Seawater (chemistry)</term></keywords><keywords scheme="KwdFr" xml:lang="fr"><term>Benzopyranes</term><term>Couche de glace</term><term>Cycle du carbone</term><term>Datation radiométrique</term><term>Eau de mer ()</term><term>Foraminifera</term><term>Mer Méditerranée</term><term>Modèles théoriques</term><term>Oxygène</term><term>Substances humiques</term><term>Sédiments géologiques</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" type="chemical" xml:lang="en"><term>Benzopyrans</term><term>Humic Substances</term><term>Oxygen</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" type="geographic" xml:lang="en"><term>Mediterranean Sea</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="chemistry" xml:lang="en"><term>Seawater</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" xml:lang="en"><term>Carbon Cycle</term><term>Foraminifera</term><term>Geologic Sediments</term><term>Ice Cover</term><term>Models, Theoretical</term><term>Radiometric Dating</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" xml:lang="fr"><term>Benzopyranes</term><term>Couche de glace</term><term>Cycle du carbone</term><term>Datation radiométrique</term><term>Eau de mer</term><term>Foraminifera</term><term>Mer Méditerranée</term><term>Modèles théoriques</term><term>Oxygène</term><term>Substances humiques</term><term>Sédiments géologiques</term></keywords></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">Recurrent deposition of organic-rich sediment layers (sapropels) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea is caused by complex interactions between climatic and biogeochemical processes. Disentangling these influences is therefore important for Mediterranean palaeo-studies in particular, and for understanding ocean feedback processes in general. Crucially, sapropels are diagnostic of anoxic deep-water phases, which have been attributed to deep-water stagnation, enhanced biological production or both. Here we use an ocean-biogeochemical model to test the effects of commonly proposed climatic and biogeochemical causes for sapropel S1. Our results indicate that deep-water anoxia requires a long prelude of deep-water stagnation, with no particularly strong eutrophication. The model-derived time frame agrees with foraminiferal δ(13)C records that imply cessation of deep-water renewal from at least Heinrich event 1 to the early Holocene. The simulated low particulate organic carbon burial flux agrees with pre-sapropel reconstructions. Our results offer a mechanistic explanation of glacial-interglacial influence on sapropel formation.</div></front></TEI><pubmed><MedlineCitation Status="MEDLINE" Owner="NLM"><PMID Version="1">26028337</PMID><DateCreated><Year>2015</Year><Month>06</Month><Day>01</Day></DateCreated><DateCompleted><Year>2016</Year><Month>04</Month><Day>06</Day></DateCompleted><DateRevised><Year>2017</Year><Month>02</Month><Day>20</Day></DateRevised><Article PubModel="Electronic"><Journal><ISSN IssnType="Electronic">2041-1723</ISSN><JournalIssue CitedMedium="Internet"><Volume>6</Volume><PubDate><Year>2015</Year><Month>Jun</Month><Day>01</Day></PubDate></JournalIssue><Title>Nature communications</Title><ISOAbbreviation>Nat Commun</ISOAbbreviation></Journal><ArticleTitle>Late glacial initiation of Holocene eastern Mediterranean sapropel formation.</ArticleTitle><Pagination><MedlinePgn>7099</MedlinePgn></Pagination><ELocationID EIdType="doi" ValidYN="Y">10.1038/ncomms8099</ELocationID><Abstract><AbstractText>Recurrent deposition of organic-rich sediment layers (sapropels) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea is caused by complex interactions between climatic and biogeochemical processes. Disentangling these influences is therefore important for Mediterranean palaeo-studies in particular, and for understanding ocean feedback processes in general. Crucially, sapropels are diagnostic of anoxic deep-water phases, which have been attributed to deep-water stagnation, enhanced biological production or both. Here we use an ocean-biogeochemical model to test the effects of commonly proposed climatic and biogeochemical causes for sapropel S1. Our results indicate that deep-water anoxia requires a long prelude of deep-water stagnation, with no particularly strong eutrophication. The model-derived time frame agrees with foraminiferal δ(13)C records that imply cessation of deep-water renewal from at least Heinrich event 1 to the early Holocene. The simulated low particulate organic carbon burial flux agrees with pre-sapropel reconstructions. Our results offer a mechanistic explanation of glacial-interglacial influence on sapropel formation.</AbstractText></Abstract><AuthorList CompleteYN="Y"><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Grimm</LastName><ForeName>Rosina</ForeName><Initials>R</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 53, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Maier-Reimer</LastName><ForeName>Ernst</ForeName><Initials>E</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 53, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Mikolajewicz</LastName><ForeName>Uwe</ForeName><Initials>U</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 53, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Schmiedl</LastName><ForeName>Gerhard</ForeName><Initials>G</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Müller-Navarra</LastName><ForeName>Katharina</ForeName><Initials>K</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146, Germany.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Adloff</LastName><ForeName>Fanny</ForeName><Initials>F</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>CNRM-GAME, Météo-France, CNRS, 42 avenue G. Coriolis, Toulouse 31057, France.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Grant</LastName><ForeName>Katharine M</ForeName><Initials>KM</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Ziegler</LastName><ForeName>Martin</ForeName><Initials>M</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>1] ETH Zürich, Geological Institute, Sonneggstrasse 5, Zürich 8092, Switzerland [2] Department of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, Budapestlaan 455, Utrecht 3584 CD, The Netherlands.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Lourens</LastName><ForeName>Lucas J</ForeName><Initials>LJ</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Department of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, Budapestlaan 455, Utrecht 3584 CD, The Netherlands.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Emeis</LastName><ForeName>Kay-Christian</ForeName><Initials>KC</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>1] Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Institute of Geology, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, Hamburg 20146, Germany [2] Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Institute of Coastal Research, Max-Planck-Strasse 1, Geesthacht 21502, Germany.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author></AuthorList><Language>eng</Language><PublicationTypeList><PublicationType UI="D016428">Journal Article</PublicationType><PublicationType UI="D013485">Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't</PublicationType></PublicationTypeList><ArticleDate DateType="Electronic"><Year>2015</Year><Month>06</Month><Day>01</Day></ArticleDate></Article><MedlineJournalInfo><Country>England</Country><MedlineTA>Nat Commun</MedlineTA><NlmUniqueID>101528555</NlmUniqueID><ISSNLinking>2041-1723</ISSNLinking></MedlineJournalInfo><ChemicalList><Chemical><RegistryNumber>0</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance UI="D001578">Benzopyrans</NameOfSubstance></Chemical><Chemical><RegistryNumber>0</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance UI="D006812">Humic Substances</NameOfSubstance></Chemical><Chemical><RegistryNumber>64083-34-7</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance UI="C050488">sapropel</NameOfSubstance></Chemical><Chemical><RegistryNumber>S88TT14065</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance UI="D010100">Oxygen</NameOfSubstance></Chemical></ChemicalList><CitationSubset>IM</CitationSubset><CommentsCorrectionsList><CommentsCorrections RefType="Cites"><RefSource>Science. 2000 Aug 25;289(5483):1321-4</RefSource><PMID Version="1">10958772</PMID></CommentsCorrections><CommentsCorrections RefType="Cites"><RefSource>Science. 2001 Nov 30;294(5548):1917-20</RefSource><PMID Version="1">11729315</PMID></CommentsCorrections><CommentsCorrections RefType="Cites"><RefSource>Nature. 2012 Apr 04;484(7392):49-54</RefSource><PMID Version="1">22481357</PMID></CommentsCorrections><CommentsCorrections RefType="Cites"><RefSource>Nature. 2012 Nov 29;491(7426):744-7</RefSource><PMID Version="1">23151478</PMID></CommentsCorrections></CommentsCorrectionsList><MeshHeadingList><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D001578" MajorTopicYN="N">Benzopyrans</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D057486" MajorTopicYN="Y">Carbon Cycle</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D056908" MajorTopicYN="N">Foraminifera</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D019015" MajorTopicYN="Y">Geologic Sediments</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D006812" MajorTopicYN="N">Humic Substances</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D046448" MajorTopicYN="Y">Ice Cover</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D008522" MajorTopicYN="N" Type="Geographic">Mediterranean Sea</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D008962" MajorTopicYN="N">Models, Theoretical</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D010100" MajorTopicYN="Y">Oxygen</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D055110" MajorTopicYN="N">Radiometric Dating</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D012623" MajorTopicYN="N">Seawater</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000737" MajorTopicYN="Y">chemistry</QualifierName></MeshHeading></MeshHeadingList></MedlineCitation><PubmedData><History><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="received"><Year>2013</Year><Month>10</Month><Day>28</Day></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="accepted"><Year>2015</Year><Month>04</Month><Day>01</Day></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="entrez"><Year>2015</Year><Month>6</Month><Day>2</Day><Hour>6</Hour><Minute>0</Minute></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="pubmed"><Year>2015</Year><Month>6</Month><Day>2</Day><Hour>6</Hour><Minute>0</Minute></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="medline"><Year>2016</Year><Month>4</Month><Day>7</Day><Hour>6</Hour><Minute>0</Minute></PubMedPubDate></History><PublicationStatus>epublish</PublicationStatus><ArticleIdList><ArticleId IdType="pubmed">26028337</ArticleId><ArticleId IdType="pii">ncomms8099</ArticleId><ArticleId IdType="doi">10.1038/ncomms8099</ArticleId></ArticleIdList></PubmedData></pubmed><affiliations><list><country><li>Allemagne</li><li>Australie</li><li>France</li><li>Pays-Bas</li></country><region><li>Hambourg</li><li>Midi-Pyrénées</li><li>Occitanie (région administrative)</li></region><settlement><li>Hambourg</li><li>Toulouse</li></settlement></list><tree><country name="Allemagne"><region name="Hambourg"><name sortKey="Grimm, Rosina" sort="Grimm, Rosina" uniqKey="Grimm R" first="Rosina" last="Grimm">Rosina Grimm</name></region><name sortKey="Emeis, Kay Christian" sort="Emeis, Kay Christian" uniqKey="Emeis K" first="Kay-Christian" last="Emeis">Kay-Christian Emeis</name><name sortKey="Maier Reimer, Ernst" sort="Maier Reimer, Ernst" uniqKey="Maier Reimer E" first="Ernst" last="Maier-Reimer">Ernst Maier-Reimer</name><name sortKey="Mikolajewicz, Uwe" sort="Mikolajewicz, Uwe" uniqKey="Mikolajewicz U" first="Uwe" last="Mikolajewicz">Uwe Mikolajewicz</name><name sortKey="Muller Navarra, Katharina" sort="Muller Navarra, Katharina" uniqKey="Muller Navarra K" first="Katharina" last="Müller-Navarra">Katharina Müller-Navarra</name><name sortKey="Schmiedl, Gerhard" sort="Schmiedl, Gerhard" uniqKey="Schmiedl G" first="Gerhard" last="Schmiedl">Gerhard Schmiedl</name></country><country name="France"><region name="Occitanie (région administrative)"><name sortKey="Adloff, Fanny" sort="Adloff, Fanny" uniqKey="Adloff F" first="Fanny" last="Adloff">Fanny Adloff</name></region></country><country name="Australie"><noRegion><name sortKey="Grant, Katharine M" sort="Grant, Katharine M" uniqKey="Grant K" first="Katharine M" last="Grant">Katharine M. Grant</name></noRegion></country><country name="Pays-Bas"><noRegion><name sortKey="Ziegler, Martin" sort="Ziegler, Martin" uniqKey="Ziegler M" first="Martin" last="Ziegler">Martin Ziegler</name></noRegion><name sortKey="Lourens, Lucas J" sort="Lourens, Lucas J" uniqKey="Lourens L" first="Lucas J" last="Lourens">Lucas J. Lourens</name></country></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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