How the Cobra Got Its Flesh-Eating Venom: Cytotoxicity as a Defensive Innovation and Its Co-Evolution with Hooding, Aposematic Marking, and Spitting.
Identifieur interne : 000A68 ( PubMed/Checkpoint ); précédent : 000A67; suivant : 000A69How the Cobra Got Its Flesh-Eating Venom: Cytotoxicity as a Defensive Innovation and Its Co-Evolution with Hooding, Aposematic Marking, and Spitting.
Auteurs : Nadya Panagides [Australie] ; Timothy N W. Jackson [Australie] ; Maria P. Ikonomopoulou [Australie] ; Kevin Arbuckle [Royaume-Uni] ; Rudolf Pretzler [Australie] ; Daryl C. Yang [Australie] ; Syed A. Ali [Australie] ; Ivan Koludarov [Australie] ; James Dobson [Australie] ; Brittany Sanker [Australie] ; Angelique Asselin [Australie] ; Renan C. Santana [Australie] ; Iwan Hendrikx [Australie] ; Harold Van Der Ploeg [Pays-Bas] ; Jeremie Tai-A-Pin [Pays-Bas] ; Romilly Van Den Bergh [Pays-Bas] ; Harald M I. Kerkkamp [Pays-Bas] ; Freek J. Vonk [Pays-Bas] ; Arno Naude [Afrique du Sud] ; Morné A. Strydom [Afrique du Sud] ; Louis Jacobsz [Afrique du Sud] ; Nathan Dunstan [Australie] ; Marc Jaeger [France] ; Wayne C. Hodgson [Australie] ; John Miles [Australie] ; Bryan G. Fry [Australie]Source :
- Toxins [ 2072-6651 ] ; 2017.
Descripteurs français
- KwdFr :
- MESH :
English descriptors
- KwdEn :
- MESH :
- chemical , toxicity : Cobra Venoms, Neurotoxins.
- drug effects : Cell Survival, Neuromuscular Junction.
- innervation : Muscle, Skeletal.
- physiology : Elapidae.
- Animals, Behavior, Animal, Biological Evolution, Cell Line, Cell Line, Tumor, Chickens, Humans, Pigmentation.
Abstract
The cytotoxicity of the venom of 25 species of Old World elapid snake was tested and compared with the morphological and behavioural adaptations of hooding and spitting. We determined that, contrary to previous assumptions, the venoms of spitting species are not consistently more cytotoxic than those of closely related non-spitting species. While this correlation between spitting and non-spitting was found among African cobras, it was not present among Asian cobras. On the other hand, a consistent positive correlation was observed between cytotoxicity and utilisation of the defensive hooding display that cobras are famous for. Hooding and spitting are widely regarded as defensive adaptations, but it has hitherto been uncertain whether cytotoxicity serves a defensive purpose or is somehow useful in prey subjugation. The results of this study suggest that cytotoxicity evolved primarily as a defensive innovation and that it has co-evolved twice alongside hooding behavior: once in the Hemachatus + Naja and again independently in the king cobras (Ophiophagus). There was a significant increase of cytotoxicity in the Asian Naja linked to the evolution of bold aposematic hood markings, reinforcing the link between hooding and the evolution of defensive cytotoxic venoms. In parallel, lineages with increased cytotoxicity but lacking bold hood patterns evolved aposematic markers in the form of high contrast body banding. The results also indicate that, secondary to the evolution of venom rich in cytotoxins, spitting has evolved three times independently: once within the African Naja, once within the Asian Naja, and once in the Hemachatus genus. The evolution of cytotoxic venom thus appears to facilitate the evolution of defensive spitting behaviour. In contrast, a secondary loss of cytotoxicity and reduction of the hood occurred in the water cobra Naja annulata, which possesses streamlined neurotoxic venom similar to that of other aquatic elapid snakes (e.g., hydrophiine sea snakes). The results of this study make an important contribution to our growing understanding of the selection pressures shaping the evolution of snake venom and its constituent toxins. The data also aid in elucidating the relationship between these selection pressures and the medical impact of human snakebite in the developing world, as cytotoxic cobras cause considerable morbidity including loss-of-function injuries that result in economic and social burdens in the tropics of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030103
PubMed: 28335411
Affiliations:
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Jackson</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. tnwjackson@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ikonomopoulou, Maria P" sort="Ikonomopoulou, Maria P" uniqKey="Ikonomopoulou M" first="Maria P" last="Ikonomopoulou">Maria P. Ikonomopoulou</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia. maria.ikonomopoulou@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4049</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Arbuckle, Kevin" sort="Arbuckle, Kevin" uniqKey="Arbuckle K" first="Kevin" last="Arbuckle">Kevin Arbuckle</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK. kevin.arbuckle@swansea.ac.uk.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Royaume-Uni</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Swansea SA2 8PP</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pretzler, Rudolf" sort="Pretzler, Rudolf" uniqKey="Pretzler R" first="Rudolf" last="Pretzler">Rudolf Pretzler</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. rp1990@gmx.at.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Yang, Daryl C" sort="Yang, Daryl C" uniqKey="Yang D" first="Daryl C" last="Yang">Daryl C. Yang</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia. daryl.yang@monash.edu.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ali, Syed A" sort="Ali, Syed A" uniqKey="Ali S" first="Syed A" last="Ali">Syed A. Ali</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. dr.syedabidali@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Koludarov, Ivan" sort="Koludarov, Ivan" uniqKey="Koludarov I" first="Ivan" last="Koludarov">Ivan Koludarov</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. jcoludar@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Dobson, James" sort="Dobson, James" uniqKey="Dobson J" first="James" last="Dobson">James Dobson</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. james.dobson@uqconnect.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sanker, Brittany" sort="Sanker, Brittany" uniqKey="Sanker B" first="Brittany" last="Sanker">Brittany Sanker</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. brittany.sanker@uq.net.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Asselin, Angelique" sort="Asselin, Angelique" uniqKey="Asselin A" first="Angelique" last="Asselin">Angelique Asselin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. angelique.asselin@uq.net.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Santana, Renan C" sort="Santana, Renan C" uniqKey="Santana R" first="Renan C" last="Santana">Renan C. Santana</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. renancassant@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hendrikx, Iwan" sort="Hendrikx, Iwan" uniqKey="Hendrikx I" first="Iwan" last="Hendrikx">Iwan Hendrikx</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. iwanhx@yahoo.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Ploeg, Harold" sort="Van Der Ploeg, Harold" uniqKey="Van Der Ploeg H" first="Harold" last="Van Der Ploeg">Harold Van Der Ploeg</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Working Group Adder Research Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands. info@eyecreations.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Working Group Adder Research Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Tai A Pin, Jeremie" sort="Tai A Pin, Jeremie" uniqKey="Tai A Pin J" first="Jeremie" last="Tai-A-Pin">Jeremie Tai-A-Pin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Working Group Venomous Bites Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands. jeremie@ratelslangen.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Working Group Venomous Bites Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Den Bergh, Romilly" sort="Van Den Bergh, Romilly" uniqKey="Van Den Bergh R" first="Romilly" last="Van Den Bergh">Romilly Van Den Bergh</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands. rovdbergh@me.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>2333 CR Leiden</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kerkkamp, Harald M I" sort="Kerkkamp, Harald M I" uniqKey="Kerkkamp H" first="Harald M I" last="Kerkkamp">Harald M I. Kerkkamp</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands. h.m.i.kerkkamp@biology.leidenuniv.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>2333 BE Leiden</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Vonk, Freek J" sort="Vonk, Freek J" uniqKey="Vonk F" first="Freek J" last="Vonk">Freek J. Vonk</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands. freek.vonk@naturalis.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>2333 CR Leiden</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Naude, Arno" sort="Naude, Arno" uniqKey="Naude A" first="Arno" last="Naude">Arno Naude</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Snakebite Assist, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. afnaude@worldonline.co.za.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Snakebite Assist, Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Strydom, Morne A" sort="Strydom, Morne A" uniqKey="Strydom M" first="Morné A" last="Strydom">Morné A. Strydom</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Department Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. morne.strydom@synexus.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Department Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jacobsz, Louis" sort="Jacobsz, Louis" uniqKey="Jacobsz L" first="Louis" last="Jacobsz">Louis Jacobsz</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Zoology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. louissnakes@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Zoology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Dunstan, Nathan" sort="Dunstan, Nathan" uniqKey="Dunstan N" first="Nathan" last="Dunstan">Nathan Dunstan</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352, Australia. nathan@venomsupplies.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>South Australia 5352</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jaeger, Marc" sort="Jaeger, Marc" uniqKey="Jaeger M" first="Marc" last="Jaeger">Marc Jaeger</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Planet Exotica, 5 Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204 Royan, France. marc.jaeger@bluewin.ch.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">France</country><wicri:regionArea>Planet Exotica, 5 Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204 Royan</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>17204 Royan</wicri:noRegion><wicri:noRegion>17204 Royan</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hodgson, Wayne C" sort="Hodgson, Wayne C" uniqKey="Hodgson W" first="Wayne C" last="Hodgson">Wayne C. Hodgson</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia. wayne.hodgson@monash.edu.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Miles, John" sort="Miles, John" uniqKey="Miles J" first="John" last="Miles">John Miles</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia. John.Miles@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4049</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fry, Bryan G" sort="Fry, Bryan G" uniqKey="Fry B" first="Bryan G" last="Fry">Bryan G. Fry</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. bgfry@uq.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PubMed</idno><date when="2017">2017</date><idno type="RBID">pubmed:28335411</idno><idno type="pmid">28335411</idno><idno type="doi">10.3390/toxins9030103</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/PubMed/Corpus">000F16</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="PubMed" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PubMed">000F16</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/PubMed/Curation">000F13</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="PubMed" wicri:step="Curation">000F13</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/PubMed/Checkpoint">000F13</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Checkpoint" wicri:step="PubMed">000F13</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en">How the Cobra Got Its Flesh-Eating Venom: Cytotoxicity as a Defensive Innovation and Its Co-Evolution with Hooding, Aposematic Marking, and Spitting.</title><author><name sortKey="Panagides, Nadya" sort="Panagides, Nadya" uniqKey="Panagides N" first="Nadya" last="Panagides">Nadya Panagides</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. nadya.panagides@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jackson, Timothy N W" sort="Jackson, Timothy N W" uniqKey="Jackson T" first="Timothy N W" last="Jackson">Timothy N W. Jackson</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. tnwjackson@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ikonomopoulou, Maria P" sort="Ikonomopoulou, Maria P" uniqKey="Ikonomopoulou M" first="Maria P" last="Ikonomopoulou">Maria P. Ikonomopoulou</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia. maria.ikonomopoulou@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4049</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Arbuckle, Kevin" sort="Arbuckle, Kevin" uniqKey="Arbuckle K" first="Kevin" last="Arbuckle">Kevin Arbuckle</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK. kevin.arbuckle@swansea.ac.uk.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Royaume-Uni</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Swansea SA2 8PP</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pretzler, Rudolf" sort="Pretzler, Rudolf" uniqKey="Pretzler R" first="Rudolf" last="Pretzler">Rudolf Pretzler</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. rp1990@gmx.at.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Yang, Daryl C" sort="Yang, Daryl C" uniqKey="Yang D" first="Daryl C" last="Yang">Daryl C. Yang</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia. daryl.yang@monash.edu.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Ali, Syed A" sort="Ali, Syed A" uniqKey="Ali S" first="Syed A" last="Ali">Syed A. Ali</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. dr.syedabidali@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Koludarov, Ivan" sort="Koludarov, Ivan" uniqKey="Koludarov I" first="Ivan" last="Koludarov">Ivan Koludarov</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. jcoludar@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Dobson, James" sort="Dobson, James" uniqKey="Dobson J" first="James" last="Dobson">James Dobson</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. james.dobson@uqconnect.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Sanker, Brittany" sort="Sanker, Brittany" uniqKey="Sanker B" first="Brittany" last="Sanker">Brittany Sanker</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. brittany.sanker@uq.net.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Asselin, Angelique" sort="Asselin, Angelique" uniqKey="Asselin A" first="Angelique" last="Asselin">Angelique Asselin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. angelique.asselin@uq.net.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Santana, Renan C" sort="Santana, Renan C" uniqKey="Santana R" first="Renan C" last="Santana">Renan C. Santana</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. renancassant@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hendrikx, Iwan" sort="Hendrikx, Iwan" uniqKey="Hendrikx I" first="Iwan" last="Hendrikx">Iwan Hendrikx</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. iwanhx@yahoo.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Der Ploeg, Harold" sort="Van Der Ploeg, Harold" uniqKey="Van Der Ploeg H" first="Harold" last="Van Der Ploeg">Harold Van Der Ploeg</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Working Group Adder Research Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands. info@eyecreations.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Working Group Adder Research Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Tai A Pin, Jeremie" sort="Tai A Pin, Jeremie" uniqKey="Tai A Pin J" first="Jeremie" last="Tai-A-Pin">Jeremie Tai-A-Pin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Working Group Venomous Bites Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands. jeremie@ratelslangen.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Working Group Venomous Bites Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>6525 ED Nijmegen</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Van Den Bergh, Romilly" sort="Van Den Bergh, Romilly" uniqKey="Van Den Bergh R" first="Romilly" last="Van Den Bergh">Romilly Van Den Bergh</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands. rovdbergh@me.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>2333 CR Leiden</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Kerkkamp, Harald M I" sort="Kerkkamp, Harald M I" uniqKey="Kerkkamp H" first="Harald M I" last="Kerkkamp">Harald M I. Kerkkamp</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands. h.m.i.kerkkamp@biology.leidenuniv.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>2333 BE Leiden</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Vonk, Freek J" sort="Vonk, Freek J" uniqKey="Vonk F" first="Freek J" last="Vonk">Freek J. Vonk</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands. freek.vonk@naturalis.nl.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>2333 CR Leiden</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Naude, Arno" sort="Naude, Arno" uniqKey="Naude A" first="Arno" last="Naude">Arno Naude</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Snakebite Assist, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. afnaude@worldonline.co.za.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Snakebite Assist, Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Strydom, Morne A" sort="Strydom, Morne A" uniqKey="Strydom M" first="Morné A" last="Strydom">Morné A. Strydom</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Department Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. morne.strydom@synexus.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Department Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jacobsz, Louis" sort="Jacobsz, Louis" uniqKey="Jacobsz L" first="Louis" last="Jacobsz">Louis Jacobsz</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Zoology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. louissnakes@gmail.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Zoology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Pretoria ZA-0001</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Dunstan, Nathan" sort="Dunstan, Nathan" uniqKey="Dunstan N" first="Nathan" last="Dunstan">Nathan Dunstan</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352, Australia. nathan@venomsupplies.com.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>South Australia 5352</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Jaeger, Marc" sort="Jaeger, Marc" uniqKey="Jaeger M" first="Marc" last="Jaeger">Marc Jaeger</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Planet Exotica, 5 Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204 Royan, France. marc.jaeger@bluewin.ch.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">France</country><wicri:regionArea>Planet Exotica, 5 Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204 Royan</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>17204 Royan</wicri:noRegion><wicri:noRegion>17204 Royan</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hodgson, Wayne C" sort="Hodgson, Wayne C" uniqKey="Hodgson W" first="Wayne C" last="Hodgson">Wayne C. Hodgson</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia. wayne.hodgson@monash.edu.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Clayton VIC 3800</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Miles, John" sort="Miles, John" uniqKey="Miles J" first="John" last="Miles">John Miles</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia. John.Miles@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4049</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fry, Bryan G" sort="Fry, Bryan G" uniqKey="Fry B" first="Bryan G" last="Fry">Bryan G. Fry</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. bgfry@uq.edu.au.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Australie</country><wicri:regionArea>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>QLD 4072</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Toxins</title><idno type="eISSN">2072-6651</idno><imprint><date when="2017" type="published">2017</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass><keywords scheme="KwdEn" xml:lang="en"><term>Animals</term><term>Behavior, Animal</term><term>Biological Evolution</term><term>Cell Line</term><term>Cell Line, Tumor</term><term>Cell Survival (drug effects)</term><term>Chickens</term><term>Cobra Venoms (toxicity)</term><term>Elapidae (physiology)</term><term>Humans</term><term>Muscle, Skeletal (innervation)</term><term>Neuromuscular Junction (drug effects)</term><term>Neurotoxins (toxicity)</term><term>Pigmentation</term></keywords><keywords scheme="KwdFr" xml:lang="fr"><term>Animaux</term><term>Comportement animal</term><term>Elapidae (physiologie)</term><term>Humains</term><term>Jonction neuromusculaire ()</term><term>Lignée cellulaire</term><term>Lignée cellulaire tumorale</term><term>Muscles squelettiques (innervation)</term><term>Neurotoxines (toxicité)</term><term>Pigmentation</term><term>Poulets</term><term>Survie cellulaire ()</term><term>Venins de cobra (toxicité)</term><term>Évolution biologique</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" type="chemical" qualifier="toxicity" xml:lang="en"><term>Cobra Venoms</term><term>Neurotoxins</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="drug effects" xml:lang="en"><term>Cell Survival</term><term>Neuromuscular Junction</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="innervation" xml:lang="en"><term>Muscle, Skeletal</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="physiologie" xml:lang="fr"><term>Elapidae</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="physiology" xml:lang="en"><term>Elapidae</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="toxicité" xml:lang="fr"><term>Muscles squelettiques</term><term>Neurotoxines</term><term>Venins de cobra</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" xml:lang="en"><term>Animals</term><term>Behavior, Animal</term><term>Biological Evolution</term><term>Cell Line</term><term>Cell Line, Tumor</term><term>Chickens</term><term>Humans</term><term>Pigmentation</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" xml:lang="fr"><term>Animaux</term><term>Comportement animal</term><term>Humains</term><term>Jonction neuromusculaire</term><term>Lignée cellulaire</term><term>Lignée cellulaire tumorale</term><term>Pigmentation</term><term>Poulets</term><term>Survie cellulaire</term><term>Évolution biologique</term></keywords></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">The cytotoxicity of the venom of 25 species of Old World elapid snake was tested and compared with the morphological and behavioural adaptations of hooding and spitting. We determined that, contrary to previous assumptions, the venoms of spitting species are not consistently more cytotoxic than those of closely related non-spitting species. While this correlation between spitting and non-spitting was found among African cobras, it was not present among Asian cobras. On the other hand, a consistent positive correlation was observed between cytotoxicity and utilisation of the defensive hooding display that cobras are famous for. Hooding and spitting are widely regarded as defensive adaptations, but it has hitherto been uncertain whether cytotoxicity serves a defensive purpose or is somehow useful in prey subjugation. The results of this study suggest that cytotoxicity evolved primarily as a defensive innovation and that it has co-evolved twice alongside hooding behavior: once in the Hemachatus + Naja and again independently in the king cobras (Ophiophagus). There was a significant increase of cytotoxicity in the Asian Naja linked to the evolution of bold aposematic hood markings, reinforcing the link between hooding and the evolution of defensive cytotoxic venoms. In parallel, lineages with increased cytotoxicity but lacking bold hood patterns evolved aposematic markers in the form of high contrast body banding. The results also indicate that, secondary to the evolution of venom rich in cytotoxins, spitting has evolved three times independently: once within the African Naja, once within the Asian Naja, and once in the Hemachatus genus. The evolution of cytotoxic venom thus appears to facilitate the evolution of defensive spitting behaviour. In contrast, a secondary loss of cytotoxicity and reduction of the hood occurred in the water cobra Naja annulata, which possesses streamlined neurotoxic venom similar to that of other aquatic elapid snakes (e.g., hydrophiine sea snakes). The results of this study make an important contribution to our growing understanding of the selection pressures shaping the evolution of snake venom and its constituent toxins. The data also aid in elucidating the relationship between these selection pressures and the medical impact of human snakebite in the developing world, as cytotoxic cobras cause considerable morbidity including loss-of-function injuries that result in economic and social burdens in the tropics of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.</div></front></TEI><pubmed><MedlineCitation Status="MEDLINE" Owner="NLM"><PMID Version="1">28335411</PMID><DateCreated><Year>2017</Year><Month>03</Month><Day>24</Day></DateCreated><DateCompleted><Year>2017</Year><Month>11</Month><Day>09</Day></DateCompleted><DateRevised><Year>2017</Year><Month>11</Month><Day>16</Day></DateRevised><Article PubModel="Electronic"><Journal><ISSN IssnType="Electronic">2072-6651</ISSN><JournalIssue CitedMedium="Internet"><Volume>9</Volume><Issue>3</Issue><PubDate><Year>2017</Year><Month>Mar</Month><Day>13</Day></PubDate></JournalIssue><Title>Toxins</Title><ISOAbbreviation>Toxins (Basel)</ISOAbbreviation></Journal><ArticleTitle>How the Cobra Got Its Flesh-Eating Venom: Cytotoxicity as a Defensive Innovation and Its Co-Evolution with Hooding, Aposematic Marking, and Spitting.</ArticleTitle><ELocationID EIdType="pii" ValidYN="Y">E103</ELocationID><ELocationID EIdType="doi" ValidYN="Y">10.3390/toxins9030103</ELocationID><Abstract><AbstractText>The cytotoxicity of the venom of 25 species of Old World elapid snake was tested and compared with the morphological and behavioural adaptations of hooding and spitting. We determined that, contrary to previous assumptions, the venoms of spitting species are not consistently more cytotoxic than those of closely related non-spitting species. While this correlation between spitting and non-spitting was found among African cobras, it was not present among Asian cobras. On the other hand, a consistent positive correlation was observed between cytotoxicity and utilisation of the defensive hooding display that cobras are famous for. Hooding and spitting are widely regarded as defensive adaptations, but it has hitherto been uncertain whether cytotoxicity serves a defensive purpose or is somehow useful in prey subjugation. The results of this study suggest that cytotoxicity evolved primarily as a defensive innovation and that it has co-evolved twice alongside hooding behavior: once in the Hemachatus + Naja and again independently in the king cobras (Ophiophagus). There was a significant increase of cytotoxicity in the Asian Naja linked to the evolution of bold aposematic hood markings, reinforcing the link between hooding and the evolution of defensive cytotoxic venoms. In parallel, lineages with increased cytotoxicity but lacking bold hood patterns evolved aposematic markers in the form of high contrast body banding. The results also indicate that, secondary to the evolution of venom rich in cytotoxins, spitting has evolved three times independently: once within the African Naja, once within the Asian Naja, and once in the Hemachatus genus. The evolution of cytotoxic venom thus appears to facilitate the evolution of defensive spitting behaviour. In contrast, a secondary loss of cytotoxicity and reduction of the hood occurred in the water cobra Naja annulata, which possesses streamlined neurotoxic venom similar to that of other aquatic elapid snakes (e.g., hydrophiine sea snakes). The results of this study make an important contribution to our growing understanding of the selection pressures shaping the evolution of snake venom and its constituent toxins. The data also aid in elucidating the relationship between these selection pressures and the medical impact of human snakebite in the developing world, as cytotoxic cobras cause considerable morbidity including loss-of-function injuries that result in economic and social burdens in the tropics of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.</AbstractText></Abstract><AuthorList CompleteYN="Y"><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Panagides</LastName><ForeName>Nadya</ForeName><Initials>N</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. nadya.panagides@gmail.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Jackson</LastName><ForeName>Timothy N W</ForeName><Initials>TN</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. tnwjackson@gmail.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Ikonomopoulou</LastName><ForeName>Maria P</ForeName><Initials>MP</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia. maria.ikonomopoulou@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4002, Australia. maria.ikonomopoulou@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Arbuckle</LastName><ForeName>Kevin</ForeName><Initials>K</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK. kevin.arbuckle@swansea.ac.uk.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Pretzler</LastName><ForeName>Rudolf</ForeName><Initials>R</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. rp1990@gmx.at.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Yang</LastName><ForeName>Daryl C</ForeName><Initials>DC</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia. daryl.yang@monash.edu.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Ali</LastName><ForeName>Syed A</ForeName><Initials>SA</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. dr.syedabidali@gmail.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan. dr.syedabidali@gmail.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Koludarov</LastName><ForeName>Ivan</ForeName><Initials>I</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. jcoludar@gmail.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Dobson</LastName><ForeName>James</ForeName><Initials>J</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. james.dobson@uqconnect.edu.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Sanker</LastName><ForeName>Brittany</ForeName><Initials>B</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. brittany.sanker@uq.net.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Asselin</LastName><ForeName>Angelique</ForeName><Initials>A</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. angelique.asselin@uq.net.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Santana</LastName><ForeName>Renan C</ForeName><Initials>RC</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. renancassant@gmail.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Hendrikx</LastName><ForeName>Iwan</ForeName><Initials>I</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. iwanhx@yahoo.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>van der Ploeg</LastName><ForeName>Harold</ForeName><Initials>H</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Working Group Adder Research Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands. info@eyecreations.nl.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Tai-A-Pin</LastName><ForeName>Jeremie</ForeName><Initials>J</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Working Group Venomous Bites Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands. jeremie@ratelslangen.nl.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>van den Bergh</LastName><ForeName>Romilly</ForeName><Initials>R</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands. rovdbergh@me.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Kerkkamp</LastName><ForeName>Harald M I</ForeName><Initials>HM</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands. h.m.i.kerkkamp@biology.leidenuniv.nl.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Vonk</LastName><ForeName>Freek J</ForeName><Initials>FJ</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands. freek.vonk@naturalis.nl.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Naude</LastName><ForeName>Arno</ForeName><Initials>A</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Snakebite Assist, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. afnaude@worldonline.co.za.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Strydom</LastName><ForeName>Morné A</ForeName><Initials>MA</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Department Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. morne.strydom@synexus.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>SYNEXUS Clinical Research SA Pty Ltd., Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. morne.strydom@synexus.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Jacobsz</LastName><ForeName>Louis</ForeName><Initials>L</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Zoology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa. louissnakes@gmail.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Dunstan</LastName><ForeName>Nathan</ForeName><Initials>N</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352, Australia. nathan@venomsupplies.com.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Jaeger</LastName><ForeName>Marc</ForeName><Initials>M</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Planet Exotica, 5 Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204 Royan, France. marc.jaeger@bluewin.ch.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Hodgson</LastName><ForeName>Wayne C</ForeName><Initials>WC</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia. wayne.hodgson@monash.edu.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Miles</LastName><ForeName>John</ForeName><Initials>J</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia. John.Miles@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4002, Australia. John.Miles@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia. John.Miles@qimrberghofer.edu.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Fry</LastName><ForeName>Bryan G</ForeName><Initials>BG</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia. bgfry@uq.edu.au.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author></AuthorList><Language>eng</Language><PublicationTypeList><PublicationType UI="D016428">Journal Article</PublicationType></PublicationTypeList><ArticleDate DateType="Electronic"><Year>2017</Year><Month>03</Month><Day>13</Day></ArticleDate></Article><MedlineJournalInfo><Country>Switzerland</Country><MedlineTA>Toxins (Basel)</MedlineTA><NlmUniqueID>101530765</NlmUniqueID><ISSNLinking>2072-6651</ISSNLinking></MedlineJournalInfo><ChemicalList><Chemical><RegistryNumber>0</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance UI="D003040">Cobra Venoms</NameOfSubstance></Chemical><Chemical><RegistryNumber>0</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance 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Survival</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000187" MajorTopicYN="N">drug effects</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D002645" MajorTopicYN="N">Chickens</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D003040" MajorTopicYN="Y">Cobra Venoms</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000633" MajorTopicYN="N">toxicity</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D017815" MajorTopicYN="N">Elapidae</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000502" MajorTopicYN="N">physiology</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D006801" MajorTopicYN="N">Humans</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D018482" MajorTopicYN="N">Muscle, Skeletal</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000294" MajorTopicYN="N">innervation</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D009469" MajorTopicYN="N">Neuromuscular Junction</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000187" MajorTopicYN="N">drug effects</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D009498" MajorTopicYN="Y">Neurotoxins</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000633" MajorTopicYN="N">toxicity</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D010858" MajorTopicYN="N">Pigmentation</DescriptorName></MeshHeading></MeshHeadingList><KeywordList Owner="NOTNLM"><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Elapidae</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Hemachatus</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Naja</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Ophiophagus</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">antipredator defense</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">cobra</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">cytotoxin</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">evolution</Keyword></KeywordList></MedlineCitation><PubmedData><History><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="received"><Year>2017</Year><Month>01</Month><Day>23</Day></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="revised"><Year>2017</Year><Month>02</Month><Day>19</Day></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="accepted"><Year>2017</Year><Month>03</Month><Day>05</Day></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="entrez"><Year>2017</Year><Month>3</Month><Day>25</Day><Hour>6</Hour><Minute>0</Minute></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="pubmed"><Year>2017</Year><Month>3</Month><Day>25</Day><Hour>6</Hour><Minute>0</Minute></PubMedPubDate><PubMedPubDate PubStatus="medline"><Year>2017</Year><Month>11</Month><Day>10</Day><Hour>6</Hour><Minute>0</Minute></PubMedPubDate></History><PublicationStatus>epublish</PublicationStatus><ArticleIdList><ArticleId IdType="pubmed">28335411</ArticleId><ArticleId IdType="pii">toxins9030103</ArticleId><ArticleId IdType="doi">10.3390/toxins9030103</ArticleId><ArticleId IdType="pmc">PMC5371858</ArticleId></ArticleIdList></PubmedData></pubmed><affiliations><list><country><li>Afrique du Sud</li><li>Australie</li><li>France</li><li>Pays-Bas</li><li>Royaume-Uni</li></country></list><tree><country name="Australie"><noRegion><name sortKey="Panagides, Nadya" 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Ali</name><name sortKey="Asselin, Angelique" sort="Asselin, Angelique" uniqKey="Asselin A" first="Angelique" last="Asselin">Angelique Asselin</name><name sortKey="Dobson, James" sort="Dobson, James" uniqKey="Dobson J" first="James" last="Dobson">James Dobson</name><name sortKey="Dunstan, Nathan" sort="Dunstan, Nathan" uniqKey="Dunstan N" first="Nathan" last="Dunstan">Nathan Dunstan</name><name sortKey="Fry, Bryan G" sort="Fry, Bryan G" uniqKey="Fry B" first="Bryan G" last="Fry">Bryan G. Fry</name><name sortKey="Hendrikx, Iwan" sort="Hendrikx, Iwan" uniqKey="Hendrikx I" first="Iwan" last="Hendrikx">Iwan Hendrikx</name><name sortKey="Hodgson, Wayne C" sort="Hodgson, Wayne C" uniqKey="Hodgson W" first="Wayne C" last="Hodgson">Wayne C. Hodgson</name><name sortKey="Ikonomopoulou, Maria P" sort="Ikonomopoulou, Maria P" uniqKey="Ikonomopoulou M" first="Maria P" last="Ikonomopoulou">Maria P. 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Yang</name></country><country name="Royaume-Uni"><noRegion><name sortKey="Arbuckle, Kevin" sort="Arbuckle, Kevin" uniqKey="Arbuckle K" first="Kevin" last="Arbuckle">Kevin Arbuckle</name></noRegion></country><country name="Pays-Bas"><noRegion><name sortKey="Van Der Ploeg, Harold" sort="Van Der Ploeg, Harold" uniqKey="Van Der Ploeg H" first="Harold" last="Van Der Ploeg">Harold Van Der Ploeg</name></noRegion><name sortKey="Kerkkamp, Harald M I" sort="Kerkkamp, Harald M I" uniqKey="Kerkkamp H" first="Harald M I" last="Kerkkamp">Harald M I. Kerkkamp</name><name sortKey="Tai A Pin, Jeremie" sort="Tai A Pin, Jeremie" uniqKey="Tai A Pin J" first="Jeremie" last="Tai-A-Pin">Jeremie Tai-A-Pin</name><name sortKey="Van Den Bergh, Romilly" sort="Van Den Bergh, Romilly" uniqKey="Van Den Bergh R" first="Romilly" last="Van Den Bergh">Romilly Van Den Bergh</name><name sortKey="Vonk, Freek J" sort="Vonk, Freek J" uniqKey="Vonk F" first="Freek J" last="Vonk">Freek J. Vonk</name></country><country name="Afrique du Sud"><noRegion><name sortKey="Naude, Arno" sort="Naude, Arno" uniqKey="Naude A" first="Arno" last="Naude">Arno Naude</name></noRegion><name sortKey="Jacobsz, Louis" sort="Jacobsz, Louis" uniqKey="Jacobsz L" first="Louis" last="Jacobsz">Louis Jacobsz</name><name sortKey="Strydom, Morne A" sort="Strydom, Morne A" uniqKey="Strydom M" first="Morné A" last="Strydom">Morné A. Strydom</name></country><country name="France"><noRegion><name sortKey="Jaeger, Marc" sort="Jaeger, Marc" uniqKey="Jaeger M" first="Marc" last="Jaeger">Marc Jaeger</name></noRegion></country></tree></affiliations></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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