Right wing authoritarianism is associated with race bias in face detection
Identifieur interne : 002986 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 002985; suivant : 002987Right wing authoritarianism is associated with race bias in face detection
Auteurs : Amélie Bret ; Brice Beffara ; Jessica Mcfadyen ; Martial MermillodSource :
- PLoS ONE [ 1932-6203 ] ; 2017.
Abstract
Racial discrimination can be observed in a wide range of psychological processes, including even the earliest phases of face detection. It remains unclear, however, whether racially-biased low-level face processing is influenced by ideologies, such as right wing authoritarianism or social dominance orientation. In the current study, we hypothesized that socio-political ideologies such as these can substantially predict perceptive racial bias during early perception. To test this hypothesis, 67 participants detected faces within arrays of neutral objects. The faces were either Caucasian (in-group) or North African (out-group) and either had a neutral or angry expression. Results showed that participants with higher self-reported right-wing authoritarianism were more likely to show slower response times for detecting out- vs. in-groups faces. We interpreted our results according to the Dual Process Motivational Model and suggest that socio-political ideologies may foster early racial bias via attentional disengagement.
Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179894
PubMed: 28692705
PubMed Central: 5503189
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PMC:5503189Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Right wing authoritarianism is associated with race bias in face detection</title><author><name sortKey="Bret, Amelie" sort="Bret, Amelie" uniqKey="Bret A" first="Amélie" last="Bret">Amélie Bret</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>CNRS, LPNC UMR 5105, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Beffara, Brice" sort="Beffara, Brice" uniqKey="Beffara B" first="Brice" last="Beffara">Brice Beffara</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>CNRS, LPNC UMR 5105, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff003"><addr-line>IPSY, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mcfadyen, Jessica" sort="Mcfadyen, Jessica" uniqKey="Mcfadyen J" first="Jessica" last="Mcfadyen">Jessica Mcfadyen</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD Australia</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mermillod, Martial" sort="Mermillod, Martial" uniqKey="Mermillod M" first="Martial" last="Mermillod">Martial Mermillod</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>CNRS, LPNC UMR 5105, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff005"><addr-line>Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">28692705</idno><idno type="pmc">5503189</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5503189</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:5503189</idno><idno type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0179894</idno><date when="2017">2017</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">002986</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">002986</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Right wing authoritarianism is associated with race bias in face detection</title><author><name sortKey="Bret, Amelie" sort="Bret, Amelie" uniqKey="Bret A" first="Amélie" last="Bret">Amélie Bret</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>CNRS, LPNC UMR 5105, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Beffara, Brice" sort="Beffara, Brice" uniqKey="Beffara B" first="Brice" last="Beffara">Brice Beffara</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>CNRS, LPNC UMR 5105, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff003"><addr-line>IPSY, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mcfadyen, Jessica" sort="Mcfadyen, Jessica" uniqKey="Mcfadyen J" first="Jessica" last="Mcfadyen">Jessica Mcfadyen</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD Australia</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mermillod, Martial" sort="Mermillod, Martial" uniqKey="Mermillod M" first="Martial" last="Mermillod">Martial Mermillod</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>CNRS, LPNC UMR 5105, Grenoble, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff005"><addr-line>Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">PLoS ONE</title><idno type="eISSN">1932-6203</idno><imprint><date when="2017">2017</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Racial discrimination can be observed in a wide range of psychological processes, including even the earliest phases of face detection. It remains unclear, however, whether racially-biased low-level face processing is influenced by ideologies, such as right wing authoritarianism or social dominance orientation. In the current study, we hypothesized that socio-political ideologies such as these can substantially predict perceptive racial bias during early perception. To test this hypothesis, 67 participants detected faces within arrays of neutral objects. The faces were either Caucasian (in-group) or North African (out-group) and either had a neutral or angry expression. Results showed that participants with higher self-reported right-wing authoritarianism were more likely to show slower response times for detecting out- vs. in-groups faces. We interpreted our results according to the Dual Process Motivational Model and suggest that socio-political ideologies may foster early racial bias via attentional disengagement.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Duckitt, J" uniqKey="Duckitt J">J Duckitt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sibley, C" uniqKey="Sibley C">C Sibley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Duckitt, J" uniqKey="Duckitt J">J Duckitt</name></author><author><name sortKey="Sibley, C" uniqKey="Sibley C">C Sibley</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Jack, R" uniqKey="Jack R">R Jack</name></author><author><name sortKey="Schyns, P" uniqKey="Schyns P">P Schyns</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Sun, G" uniqKey="Sun G">G Sun</name></author><author><name sortKey="Song, L" uniqKey="Song 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS One</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS ONE</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plosone</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>PLoS ONE</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1932-6203</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name><publisher-loc>San Francisco, CA USA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">28692705</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">5503189</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0179894</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PONE-D-16-26985</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life 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subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Medicine and Health Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Anatomy</subject><subj-group><subject>Head</subject><subj-group><subject>Face</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Neuroscience</subject><subj-group><subject>Sensory Perception</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Sensory Perception</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Social Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Sensory Perception</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Social Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Sociology</subject><subj-group><subject>Social Discrimination</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Neuroscience</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Science</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Attention</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Attention</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Social Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Attention</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Neuroscience</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Science</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognition</subject><subj-group><subject>Memory</subject><subj-group><subject>Face Recognition</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Neuroscience</subject><subj-group><subject>Learning and Memory</subject><subj-group><subject>Memory</subject><subj-group><subject>Face Recognition</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Neuroscience</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Science</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Perception</subject><subj-group><subject>Face Recognition</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Perception</subject><subj-group><subject>Face Recognition</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Social Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Cognitive Psychology</subject><subj-group><subject>Perception</subject><subj-group><subject>Face Recognition</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Research and Analysis Methods</subject><subj-group><subject>Research Design</subject><subj-group><subject>Survey Research</subject><subj-group><subject>Questionnaires</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Research and Analysis Methods</subject><subj-group><subject>Mathematical and Statistical Techniques</subject><subj-group><subject>Statistical Methods</subject><subj-group><subject>Regression Analysis</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Physical Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Mathematics</subject><subj-group><subject>Statistics (Mathematics)</subject><subj-group><subject>Statistical Methods</subject><subj-group><subject>Regression Analysis</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Right wing authoritarianism is associated with race bias in face detection</article-title><alt-title alt-title-type="running-head">Right wing authoritarianism and face detection</alt-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bret</surname><given-names>Amélie</given-names></name><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Conceptualization</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Data curation</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Formal analysis</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Investigation</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Methodology</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Project administration</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Resources</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Software</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Visualization</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Writing – original draft</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Writing – review & editing</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff002"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor001">*</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Beffara</surname><given-names>Brice</given-names></name><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Conceptualization</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Data curation</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Formal analysis</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Methodology</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Project administration</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Software</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Visualization</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Writing – review & editing</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff002"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff003"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>McFadyen</surname><given-names>Jessica</given-names></name><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Writing – review & editing</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff004"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Mermillod</surname><given-names>Martial</given-names></name><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Conceptualization</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Methodology</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Project administration</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Resources</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Supervision</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Validation</role><role content-type="http://credit.casrai.org/">Writing – review & editing</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff002"><sup>2</sup></xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff005"><sup>5</sup></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff001"><label>1</label><addr-line>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, Grenoble, France</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff002"><label>2</label><addr-line>CNRS, LPNC UMR 5105, Grenoble, France</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff003"><label>3</label><addr-line>IPSY, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff004"><label>4</label><addr-line>The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD Australia</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff005"><label>5</label><addr-line>Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France</addr-line></aff><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Boraud</surname><given-names>Thomas</given-names></name><role>Editor</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="edit1"><addr-line>Centre national de la recherche scientifique, FRANCE</addr-line></aff><author-notes><fn fn-type="COI-statement" id="coi001"><p><bold>Competing Interests: </bold>The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.</p></fn><corresp id="cor001">* E-mail: <email>amelie.bret@univ-grenoble-alpes.fr</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>10</day><month>7</month><year>2017</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2017</year></pub-date><volume>12</volume><issue>7</issue><elocation-id>e0179894</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>28</day><month>7</month><year>2016</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>19</day><month>4</month><year>2017</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2017 Bret et al</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2017</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Bret et al</copyright-holder><license xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution License</ext-link>, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="pone.0179894.pdf"></self-uri><abstract><p>Racial discrimination can be observed in a wide range of psychological processes, including even the earliest phases of face detection. It remains unclear, however, whether racially-biased low-level face processing is influenced by ideologies, such as right wing authoritarianism or social dominance orientation. In the current study, we hypothesized that socio-political ideologies such as these can substantially predict perceptive racial bias during early perception. To test this hypothesis, 67 participants detected faces within arrays of neutral objects. The faces were either Caucasian (in-group) or North African (out-group) and either had a neutral or angry expression. Results showed that participants with higher self-reported right-wing authoritarianism were more likely to show slower response times for detecting out- vs. in-groups faces. We interpreted our results according to the Dual Process Motivational Model and suggest that socio-political ideologies may foster early racial bias via attentional disengagement.</p></abstract><funding-group><funding-statement>Funding for this project was provided through Floralis—University Grenoble Alpes Filiale. This research has been done with "CNRS attentats-recherche" funding. We received this special funding in order to highlight the comprehension of discriminatory behavior in Western Societies following terrorist attacks. This funding has been attributed to do different experimental studies, and to share data with the maximum of visibility.</funding-statement></funding-group><counts><fig-count count="1"></fig-count><table-count count="2"></table-count><page-count count="7"></page-count></counts><custom-meta-group><custom-meta id="data-availability"><meta-name>Data Availability</meta-name><meta-value>All files are available from FigShare, following this link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://figshare.com/s/a0a76cfddcbcb4de3aba">https://figshare.com/s/a0a76cfddcbcb4de3aba</ext-link>.</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta><notes><title>Data Availability</title><p>All files are available from FigShare, following this link: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://figshare.com/s/a0a76cfddcbcb4de3aba">https://figshare.com/s/a0a76cfddcbcb4de3aba</ext-link>.</p></notes></front><body><sec sec-type="intro" id="sec001"><title>Introduction</title><p>North and Sub Saharan African immigrants and children of immigrants are among the most discriminated individuals in Western Europe [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>]. Discrimination arises from prejudices, defined as positive and negative attitudes shaped by individual experience. Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) are substantial predictors of inter-group prejudices. RWA describes the tendency for an individual to submit to authorities, exert authoritarian aggression, and adhere to social conventions. SDO describes the extent to which an individual prefers social hierarchy [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref002" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>]. Although these two personality traits are positively correlated, they are underpinned by distinct mechanisms [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref003" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>]. RWA is mainly linked to social conformity and threat perception, whereas SDO centers on competition and hierarchy. There is consistent evidence to support this dual process of RWA and SDO in contributing to prejudice; however, it is still not clearly understood how this dual process influences early information processing, such as face detection.</p><p>In humans, the face is probably the most meaningful tool during social interaction [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref004" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>]. Racial biases have been robustly reported in face detection but the effects may depend on context, culture and task [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref005" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>]. The dependency of racial bias upon these factors is not surprising given that high-level conceptual or social information are known to modulate low-level mechanisms of visual perception [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref006" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref007" ref-type="bibr">7</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref008" ref-type="bibr">8</xref>]. Affective valence modulates object identification during visual perception [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref009" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>]but personality traits, ideologies, motivation, and social context also play a large part in face processing and categorization [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref010" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref012" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>]. It is therefore likely that socio-political ideologies explain early differences in the perception of in-group and out-group members. One hypothesis for this is that individuals with greater RWA and SDO scores require more time to detect out-group faces because they grant less attention to other-race individuals [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref014" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>]. On the other hand, a second hypothesis is that these individuals are quicker to detect out-group faces because they are more threatening for the in-group and should therefore deserve priority in early perception [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref015" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>].</p><p>To untangle these two competing hypotheses, we designed a visual search task where participants detected a face, either Caucasian (CA) or North-African (NA) and with either a neutral or angry expression, amongst neutral objects. For a sample of Caucasian participants, longer response times for NA vs. CA would reflect less attentional engagement toward out-group faces (first hypothesis). On the other hand, shorter response times for NA vs. CA would reflect increased attentional capture by out-group faces (second hypothesis). Furthermore, we predicted that perceived threat (manipulated by either a neutral or angry expression) would modulate the response times of high RWA and SDO participants compared to low RWA and SDO participants, possibly more so for out- vs. in-group faces.</p></sec><sec id="sec002"><title>Method & material</title><sec id="sec003"><title>Participants</title><p>Sixty-seven Caucasian volunteers participants from Grenoble Alpes University (59 females), 18 to 53 years of age (<italic>M</italic> = 20.37, <italic>SD</italic> = 4.49), completed the experiment for course credit. Participants were informed of the experiment procedure and then completed an oral and written consent form before they started the experiment. They were free to leave the experiment at any time without any consequences. A complete debriefing was given at the end of the experiment.</p></sec><sec id="sec004"><title>Material</title><p>We used 210 neutral stimuli from the NAPS database for objects [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref016" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>]. Face stimuli were selected from the ADFES database [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref017" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>], resulting in ten images selected for each stimulus category (NA neutral, NA angry, CA neutral, CA angry), composed equally of male and female faces. The ethnic identification of these stimuli has previously been validated, such that participants identified the Caucasian individuals as more native European (M = 5.19, SD = .79) compared to North-African individuals (M = 2.62, SD = .80)[<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref017" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>]. The stimuli were displayed on a 19” screen at a resolution of 1280 x 1024 pixels. Participants were approximately seated at 70cm from the screen.</p><p>We used a Right-Wing Authoritarianism Questionnaire short version of the Altemeyer’s 30-item [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref018" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>]. We administered the 10 items version (α = .833) from the French translation RWA Scale (1 = totally disagree to 7 = totally agree) developed by Haddock, Zanna, and Esses [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref019" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>] and Social Dominance Orientation 10 items (α = .838) from the French translation of the 16-items version [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref020" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref021" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>] of the SDO Scale (1 = totally disagree to 7 = totally agree).</p><sec id="sec005"><title>Ethics statement</title><p>All stimuli and questionnaires used in our task have been approved by the ethical committee of the Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium (reference #Projet2015-38Bis). Ethical approval was not required in France for this study. All participants provided informed written consent.</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec006"><title>Procedure</title><p>Participants were instructed to report as fast and as accurately as possible whether a face was present in an 8 x 8 search array displayed on the computer screen. The face was either angry or neutral and either Caucasian or North African but this information was neither part of the instructions nor explicitly stated to the participants. 160 trials (80 trials with a face and 80 trials without a face) were randomly distributed. A 500ms fixation cross was displayed between each trail. A 30s break was introduced after one half of the trials were presented. The search array remained on screen until the participant’s response. After completing the experiment, participants completed the questionnaires measuring RWA and SDO.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="results" id="sec007"><title>Results</title><p>We analyzed data from 62 of the 67 participants (exclusion criteria: 1 for < 75% accuracy, 1 Cook’s Distance response time outlier, and 3 due to technical issues). Across this sample, no significant differences in response time were found. Scores for RWA and SDO were strongly correlated (r(60) = .60, p < .001). To investigate potential predictive effects of socio-political conservatism, we performed two separate linear regressions on the difference in response time between CA and NA: one with RWA as a predictor and one with SDO as a predictor. The dependent variable was the response time difference between CA and NA faces, collapsed across emotional expression.</p><p>The RWA regression analysis revealed that RWA explained a significant amount of variance in response time differences between in- and out-group faces (F(1,61) = 4.81, Beta = 2.29 <italic>p</italic> < .05, 95% CI [0.17, 4.24],<italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup> = .07). Critically, participants with higher RWA scores showed slowed response times to detect NA compared to CA faces (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone.0179894.g001">Fig 1</xref>). We followed this up with two regression analyses on the simple effects of emotion (i.e. CA-Neutral vs. NA-Neutral, CA-Angry vs. NA-Angry) but these did not yield significant results (see Tables <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone.0179894.t001">1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="pone.0179894.t002">2</xref>). The second SDO regression analysis also returned no significant results.</p><fig id="pone.0179894.g001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0179894.g001</object-id><label>Fig 1</label><caption><title>Response time differences between Caucasian and North African faces (ms).</title><p>Density represents the data distribution for each variable (axis) <italic>Note</italic>, <italic>N</italic> = 62.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0179894.g001"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="pone.0179894.t001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0179894.t001</object-id><label>Table 1</label><caption><title>Linear regressions examining the associations between RWA, SDO and response time (RWA and SDO are centered).</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone.0179894.t001g" xlink:href="pone.0179894.t001"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1">CA vs. NA</th><th align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1">CA-Neutral vs. NA-Neutral</th><th align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="1">CA-Angry vs. NA-Angry</th></tr><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>p</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>p</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>p</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>RWA</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-2.293</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-2.218</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.04</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-1.563</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-1.881</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">.03</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-.730</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-1.157</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NS</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><bold>SDO</bold></td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.021</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-1.25</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NS</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.024</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.61</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NS</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">0.00</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">-0.015</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NS</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap><table-wrap id="pone.0179894.t002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0179894.t002</object-id><label>Table 2</label><caption><title>Descriptive statistics (Mean and Standard deviation).</title></caption><alternatives><graphic id="pone.0179894.t002g" xlink:href="pone.0179894.t002"></graphic><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col><col align="left" valign="middle" span="1"></col></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Type of faces</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>SD</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">521.84</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">83.27</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">CA neg</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">522.13</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">76.83</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">533.35</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">79.07</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">NA neg</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">524.23</td><td align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">78.42</td></tr></tbody></table></alternatives></table-wrap></sec><sec sec-type="conclusions" id="sec008"><title>Discussion</title><p>This study was designed to investigate the association between socio-political ideologies and racial biases in a face detection task. We found evidence to support such an association: RWA predicted longer response times for detecting NA vs. CA faces. To our knowledge, this study is the first to have investigated i) perception differences between CA and NA faces in a visual search task, and ii) the association between socio-political ideologies and these perception differences. Critically, we discovered that that the slower detection of NA faces by participants with higher RWA was independent of the face’s emotional expression. This effect could be explained by a lack of attention allocated to out-group members, as opposed to the perceived threat hypothesis. Our results are surprising considering the existing literature, which predicted that SDO, more than RWA, should be associated with a difference in this direction. Indeed, as mentioned before, RWA should be associated with perception of threat in out-group members and SDO should predict lower motivation to process out-group faces [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref003" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>]. However, we did not find significant results concerning SDO and thus our results do not support an association between this socio-political ideology and low-level (i.e. perceptual) correlates of prejudice/discrimination.</p><p>Performance in the visual search task demonstrated that individuals with higher prejudice against out-group members (i.e. higher RWA) were slower to detect out-group faces. This could relate to an intrinsic motivation to assign less attention to out-group members, perhaps because they are perceived as less relevant. However, the possibility remains that threat perception may emerge in a delayed second processing step [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref022" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>]. Future studies should investigate different moderators (such as side attentional measures) so as to determine whether attentional disengagement could lead to threat perception and therefore reconcile our results with the dual-process motivational model [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref003" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>].</p><p>Of further interest, our results also illustrated an early threat perception process provoked by NA faces on higher RWA participants. Indeed, previous research highlighted that avoidance was a central personality style influencing out-group perception ([<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref023" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref024" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref025" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>]. As a consequence, attentional disengagement from NA faces could be the strategy by which higher RWA participants manage (i.e. avoid) threat. The avoidance hypothesis probably constitutes the richest framework of interpretation. More specifically, the defensive avoidance effect allows to bring the two previous possible mechanisms, namely, threat and disengagement, together. Defensive avoidance is the way by which individuals selectively screen out decision-contrary information [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref026" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>]. Although this mechanism can be observed in the large context of cognitive dissonance, [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref027" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>]showed that this strategy was common in highly authoritarian individuals in situations of threat, as compared to low authoritarian individuals. Avoiding information is part of a coping mechanism allowing to reduce anxiety, in particular in the case of extremist behavior related to prejudice or obedience to authority [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref028" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>]. Indeed, disengaging from information potentially related to threatening events acts as a buffer against anxious states caused by the perceived threatening world, event in absence of an objective threatening event[<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref029" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>]. In the context of the present study, high RWA participants might disengage (i.e. perform defensive avoidance) from NA faces not in spite of but because of the threat potentially related to these faces.</p><p>Finally, this effect is to be interpreted as a contrast of NA compared to CA faces perception. Indeed, our dependent variable measures a bias between in- and out-group faces perception. Hence, preference for in-group faces is likely also involved in our observed response latency differences, promoting approach behavior. This positive bias for in-group faces could therefore underlie the gap between early automatic attention orienting toward CA versus NA faces ([<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref030" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref031" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref033" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>]</p><p>Our results must be interpreted by taking into consideration potential potentially important methodological point. We know that self-reported measures of political ideologies can be affected by previous experimental tasks performed by participants [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref034" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref035" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>]. Even if implicit tasks, such as ours, are less likely to influence participants’ answers to questionnaires [<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref036" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0179894.ref037" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>], it is important to consider the question of task order. The face detection task and the questionnaires could possibly influence each other depending of the order of presentation (e.g., experimental asking bias, priming effects). In this case, participants always completed the questionnaire <italic>after</italic> the face detection task and thus there may be an influential effect of having just seen expressive CA and NA faces. A design such as this raises important methodological questions; namely, is there a better (i.e. less biased) order of presentation and is there a need to consider both orders in a counterbalanced designed? As a consequence, because we cannot answer this question with our own design, there is a strong need for future studies to explore the influence of answering the questionnaires before (versus after) the face detection task.</p><p>To summarize, we found that RWA, a sub-component of right-wing socio-political ideologies, predicted differences in different-race face perception. We concluded that this effect was likely driven by decreased attentional engagement toward out-group members. It is important to note that RWA explained only 7% of face detection variance. This means that other predictors have to be considered alongside this top-down mechanism. 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