RNA-sequence analysis of gene expression from honeybees (Apis mellifera) infected with Nosema ceranae
Identifieur interne : 002971 ( Pmc/Corpus ); précédent : 002970; suivant : 002972RNA-sequence analysis of gene expression from honeybees (Apis mellifera) infected with Nosema ceranae
Auteurs : Bouabid Badaoui ; André Fougeroux ; Fabien Petit ; Anna Anselmo ; Chiara Gorni ; Marco Cucurachi ; Antonella Cersini ; Anna Granato ; Giusy Cardeti ; Giovanni Formato ; Franco Mutinelli ; Elisabetta Giuffra ; John L. Williams ; Sara BottiSource :
- PLoS ONE [ 1932-6203 ] ; 2017.
Abstract
Honeybees (
Url:
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173438
PubMed: 28350872
PubMed Central: 5370102
Links to Exploration step
PMC:5370102Le document en format XML
<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">RNA-sequence analysis of gene expression from honeybees (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic>) infected with <italic>Nosema ceranae</italic></title><author><name sortKey="Badaoui, Bouabid" sort="Badaoui, Bouabid" uniqKey="Badaoui B" first="Bouabid" last="Badaoui">Bouabid Badaoui</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fougeroux, Andre" sort="Fougeroux, Andre" uniqKey="Fougeroux A" first="André" last="Fougeroux">André Fougeroux</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>Syngenta, Guyancourt, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Petit, Fabien" sort="Petit, Fabien" uniqKey="Petit F" first="Fabien" last="Petit">Fabien Petit</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff003"><addr-line>RNAGRO, TOURS, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Anselmo, Anna" sort="Anselmo, Anna" uniqKey="Anselmo A" first="Anna" last="Anselmo">Anna Anselmo</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Gorni, Chiara" sort="Gorni, Chiara" uniqKey="Gorni C" first="Chiara" last="Gorni">Chiara Gorni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Cucurachi, Marco" sort="Cucurachi, Marco" uniqKey="Cucurachi M" first="Marco" last="Cucurachi">Marco Cucurachi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Cersini, Antonella" sort="Cersini, Antonella" uniqKey="Cersini A" first="Antonella" last="Cersini">Antonella Cersini</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, Roma, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Granato, Anna" sort="Granato, Anna" uniqKey="Granato A" first="Anna" last="Granato">Anna Granato</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff005"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padua, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Cardeti, Giusy" sort="Cardeti, Giusy" uniqKey="Cardeti G" first="Giusy" last="Cardeti">Giusy Cardeti</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, Roma, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Formato, Giovanni" sort="Formato, Giovanni" uniqKey="Formato G" first="Giovanni" last="Formato">Giovanni Formato</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, Roma, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mutinelli, Franco" sort="Mutinelli, Franco" uniqKey="Mutinelli F" first="Franco" last="Mutinelli">Franco Mutinelli</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff005"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padua, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Giuffra, Elisabetta" sort="Giuffra, Elisabetta" uniqKey="Giuffra E" first="Elisabetta" last="Giuffra">Elisabetta Giuffra</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Williams, John L" sort="Williams, John L" uniqKey="Williams J" first="John L." last="Williams">John L. Williams</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff006"><addr-line>Davies Research Centre, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Botti, Sara" sort="Botti, Sara" uniqKey="Botti S" first="Sara" last="Botti">Sara Botti</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">28350872</idno><idno type="pmc">5370102</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5370102</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:5370102</idno><idno type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0173438</idno><date when="2017">2017</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">002971</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">002971</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">RNA-sequence analysis of gene expression from honeybees (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic>) infected with <italic>Nosema ceranae</italic></title><author><name sortKey="Badaoui, Bouabid" sort="Badaoui, Bouabid" uniqKey="Badaoui B" first="Bouabid" last="Badaoui">Bouabid Badaoui</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Fougeroux, Andre" sort="Fougeroux, Andre" uniqKey="Fougeroux A" first="André" last="Fougeroux">André Fougeroux</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff002"><addr-line>Syngenta, Guyancourt, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Petit, Fabien" sort="Petit, Fabien" uniqKey="Petit F" first="Fabien" last="Petit">Fabien Petit</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff003"><addr-line>RNAGRO, TOURS, France</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Anselmo, Anna" sort="Anselmo, Anna" uniqKey="Anselmo A" first="Anna" last="Anselmo">Anna Anselmo</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Gorni, Chiara" sort="Gorni, Chiara" uniqKey="Gorni C" first="Chiara" last="Gorni">Chiara Gorni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Cucurachi, Marco" sort="Cucurachi, Marco" uniqKey="Cucurachi M" first="Marco" last="Cucurachi">Marco Cucurachi</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Cersini, Antonella" sort="Cersini, Antonella" uniqKey="Cersini A" first="Antonella" last="Cersini">Antonella Cersini</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, Roma, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Granato, Anna" sort="Granato, Anna" uniqKey="Granato A" first="Anna" last="Granato">Anna Granato</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff005"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padua, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Cardeti, Giusy" sort="Cardeti, Giusy" uniqKey="Cardeti G" first="Giusy" last="Cardeti">Giusy Cardeti</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, Roma, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Formato, Giovanni" sort="Formato, Giovanni" uniqKey="Formato G" first="Giovanni" last="Formato">Giovanni Formato</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff004"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, Roma, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mutinelli, Franco" sort="Mutinelli, Franco" uniqKey="Mutinelli F" first="Franco" last="Mutinelli">Franco Mutinelli</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff005"><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padua, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Giuffra, Elisabetta" sort="Giuffra, Elisabetta" uniqKey="Giuffra E" first="Elisabetta" last="Giuffra">Elisabetta Giuffra</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Williams, John L" sort="Williams, John L" uniqKey="Williams J" first="John L." last="Williams">John L. Williams</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff006"><addr-line>Davies Research Centre, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Botti, Sara" sort="Botti, Sara" uniqKey="Botti S" first="Sara" last="Botti">Sara Botti</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="aff001"><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">PLoS ONE</title><idno type="eISSN">1932-6203</idno><imprint><date when="2017">2017</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Honeybees (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic>) are constantly subjected to many biotic stressors including parasites. This study examined honeybees infected with <italic>Nosema ceranae</italic> (<italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>). <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection increases the bees energy requirements and may contribute to their decreased survival. RNA-seq was used to investigate gene expression at days 5, 10 and 15 Post Infection (P.I) with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>. The expression levels of genes, isoforms, alternative transcription start sites (TSS) and differential promoter usage revealed a complex pattern of transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene regulation suggesting that bees use a range of tactics to cope with the stress of <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection. <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection may cause reduced immune function in the bees by: (i)disturbing the host amino acids metabolism (ii) down-regulating expression of antimicrobial peptides (iii) down-regulation of cuticle coatings and (iv) down-regulation of odorant binding proteins.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Higes, M" uniqKey="Higes M">M Higes</name></author><author><name sortKey="Meana, A" uniqKey="Meana A">A Meana</name></author><author><name sortKey="Bartolome, C" uniqKey="Bartolome C">C Bartolome</name></author><author><name sortKey="Botias, C" 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Han</name></author></analytic></biblStruct></listBibl></div1></back></TEI><pmc article-type="research-article"><pmc-dir>properties open_access</pmc-dir>
<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">PLoS One</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">PLoS ONE</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">plos</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="pmc">plosone</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>PLoS ONE</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1932-6203</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Public Library of Science</publisher-name><publisher-loc>San Francisco, CA USA</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">28350872</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">5370102</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0173438</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">PONE-D-15-32809</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Organisms</subject><subj-group><subject>Animals</subject><subj-group><subject>Invertebrates</subject><subj-group><subject>Arthropoda</subject><subj-group><subject>Insects</subject><subj-group><subject>Hymenoptera</subject><subj-group><subject>Bees</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Genetics</subject><subj-group><subject>Gene Expression</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Genetics</subject><subj-group><subject>Gene Expression</subject><subj-group><subject>Gene Regulation</subject><subj-group><subject>Post-Transcriptional Gene Regulation</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Organisms</subject><subj-group><subject>Animals</subject><subj-group><subject>Invertebrates</subject><subj-group><subject>Arthropoda</subject><subj-group><subject>Insects</subject><subj-group><subject>Hymenoptera</subject><subj-group><subject>Bees</subject><subj-group><subject>Honey Bees</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and life sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Genetics</subject><subj-group><subject>Gene expression</subject><subj-group><subject>DNA transcription</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Genetics</subject><subj-group><subject>Gene Expression</subject><subj-group><subject>Gene Regulation</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Medicine and Health Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Parasitic Diseases</subject></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Biology and Life Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Immunology</subject><subj-group><subject>Immune Response</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="Discipline-v3"><subject>Medicine and Health Sciences</subject><subj-group><subject>Immunology</subject><subj-group><subject>Immune Response</subject></subj-group></subj-group></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>RNA-sequence analysis of gene expression from honeybees (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic>) infected with <italic>Nosema ceranae</italic></article-title><alt-title alt-title-type="running-head">Gene expression from honeybees infected with <italic>Nosema ceranae</italic></alt-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id authenticated="true" contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6808-1765</contrib-id><name><surname>Badaoui</surname><given-names>Bouabid</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="currentaff001"><sup>¤a</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Fougeroux</surname><given-names>André</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff002"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Petit</surname><given-names>Fabien</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff003"><sup>3</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Anselmo</surname><given-names>Anna</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Gorni</surname><given-names>Chiara</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Cucurachi</surname><given-names>Marco</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Cersini</surname><given-names>Antonella</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff004"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Granato</surname><given-names>Anna</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff005"><sup>5</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Cardeti</surname><given-names>Giusy</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff004"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Formato</surname><given-names>Giovanni</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff004"><sup>4</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Mutinelli</surname><given-names>Franco</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff005"><sup>5</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Giuffra</surname><given-names>Elisabetta</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="currentaff002"><sup>¤b</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Williams</surname><given-names>John L.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff006"><sup>6</sup></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Botti</surname><given-names>Sara</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff001"><sup>1</sup></xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="cor001">*</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="aff001"><label>1</label><addr-line>Parco Tecnologico Padano - CERSA, Integrative Biology Group, Lodi, Italy</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff002"><label>2</label><addr-line>Syngenta, Guyancourt, France</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff003"><label>3</label><addr-line>RNAGRO, TOURS, France</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff004"><label>4</label><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana, Roma, Italy</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff005"><label>5</label><addr-line>Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padua, Italy</addr-line></aff><aff id="aff006"><label>6</label><addr-line>Davies Research Centre, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia</addr-line></aff><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="editor"><name><surname>Rueppell</surname><given-names>Olav</given-names></name><role>Editor</role><xref ref-type="aff" rid="edit1"></xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="edit1"><addr-line>University of North Carolina at Greensboro, UNITED STATES</addr-line></aff><author-notes><fn fn-type="COI-statement" id="coi001"><p><bold>Competing Interests: </bold>Andrea Fougeroux was employed by Syngenta during the course of the study. Fabien Petit acted as a contractor to Syngenta during the course of the study. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products to declare. This does not alter our adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.</p></fn><fn fn-type="con"><p><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p><bold>Conceptualization:</bold> BB SB EG.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Data curation:</bold> BB AA MC.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Formal analysis:</bold> BB SB AF FP CG AC AG GC GF FM.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Funding acquisition:</bold> EG SB.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Investigation:</bold> BB SB AF FP CG AC AG GC GF FM.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Methodology:</bold> BB SB AF FP CG AC AG GC GF FM EG.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Project administration:</bold> EG SB BB.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Resources:</bold> SB AF FP CG AC AG GC GF FM.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Software:</bold> BB AA MC.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Supervision:</bold> SB.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Validation:</bold> BB SB AF FP CG AC AG GC GF FM.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Visualization:</bold> BB JLW.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Writing – original draft:</bold> BB SB.</p></list-item><list-item><p><bold>Writing – review & editing:</bold> BB JLW.</p></list-item></list></p></fn><fn fn-type="current-aff" id="currentaff001"><label>¤a</label><p>Current address: Mohamed V University in Rabat, Science Faculty, Rabat, Morocco</p></fn><fn fn-type="current-aff" id="currentaff002"><label>¤b</label><p>Current address: INRA - laboratory of Animal Genetics and Integrative Biology Team Genetics, Domaine de Vilvert, Jouy-en-Josas, France</p></fn><corresp id="cor001">* E-mail: <email>sara.botti@ptp.it</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>28</day><month>3</month><year>2017</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2017</year></pub-date><volume>12</volume><issue>3</issue><elocation-id>e0173438</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>2</day><month>9</month><year>2015</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>22</day><month>2</month><year>2017</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2017 Badaoui et al</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2017</copyright-year><copyright-holder>Badaoui et al</copyright-holder><license xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><license-p>This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution License</ext-link>, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri content-type="pdf" xlink:href="pone.0173438.pdf"></self-uri><abstract><p>Honeybees (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic>) are constantly subjected to many biotic stressors including parasites. This study examined honeybees infected with <italic>Nosema ceranae</italic> (<italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>). <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection increases the bees energy requirements and may contribute to their decreased survival. RNA-seq was used to investigate gene expression at days 5, 10 and 15 Post Infection (P.I) with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>. The expression levels of genes, isoforms, alternative transcription start sites (TSS) and differential promoter usage revealed a complex pattern of transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene regulation suggesting that bees use a range of tactics to cope with the stress of <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection. <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection may cause reduced immune function in the bees by: (i)disturbing the host amino acids metabolism (ii) down-regulating expression of antimicrobial peptides (iii) down-regulation of cuticle coatings and (iv) down-regulation of odorant binding proteins.</p></abstract><funding-group><award-group id="award001"><funding-source><institution>Eureka-Eurostars Project Application</institution></funding-source><award-id>E!5069 NewBone</award-id></award-group><funding-statement>Funded by Eureka-Eurostars Project Application E!5069 NewBone. Andrea Fougeroux was employed by Syngenta during the course of the study. Syngenta provided support in the form of salary for author AF, but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The specific role of this author is articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section.</funding-statement></funding-group><counts><fig-count count="3"></fig-count><table-count count="0"></table-count><page-count count="17"></page-count></counts><custom-meta-group><custom-meta id="data-availability"><meta-name>Data Availability</meta-name><meta-value>The data may be found at the SRA database at the following URL: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/PRJNA378655/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/PRJNA378655/</ext-link> and accession number PRJNA378655.</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta><notes><title>Data Availability</title><p>The data may be found at the SRA database at the following URL: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/PRJNA378655/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/PRJNA378655/</ext-link> and accession number PRJNA378655.</p></notes></front><body><sec sec-type="intro" id="sec001"><title>Introduction</title><p>Honeybees (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic>), are critical for agricultural ecosystems, but are exposed to many biotic stressors including bacteria, viruses and fungi. <italic>Nosema ceranae</italic> (<italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>) is a microsporidian parasite which is one of the most common parasites of the honeybee. It infects the midgut [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref001" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>] and has many adverse effects which reduce the health of individual honeybees [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref002" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>–<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref004" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>] and of the colony [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref005" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>–<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref010" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>]. <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection is associated with several fitness related problems including deterioration of the gut epithelial cells [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref012" ref-type="bibr">12</xref>], immune suppression [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>] and energetic stress [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref014" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref015" ref-type="bibr">15</xref>].Honeybees have developed many defense mechanisms to deal with parasite infection which include an antimicrobial secretion layer on the gut, and cellular and humoral immune mechanisms [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref016" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>]. The honeybee humoral response has been shown to involve four antimicrobial peptides, abaecin, apidaecin, defensin and hymenoptaecin [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref017" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>–<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref020" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>].</p><p>A draft <italic>A</italic>. <italic>mellifera</italic> genome sequence was published in 2004 [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref021" ref-type="bibr">21</xref>] and an improved version of the genome sequencewas published in 2014 [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref022" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>]. This sequence is valuable for the interpretation of RNA-seq data to study gene expression. RNA-seq may be used [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref023" ref-type="bibr">23</xref>] to characterize the whole transcriptome including transcription start sites (TSS), splicing variants and differential promoter usage [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref024" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>].</p><p>The molecular response of the honey bee to infection by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> has been investigated using RNA-seq, but the focus to date has been on cells of the midgut [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref025" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>]. Digital gene expression has also been used to study the neurogenomic response to <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> in the bee brain [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref026" ref-type="bibr">26</xref>].The honey-bee nervous system, trachea and intestine interact to maintain the physiological homeostasis following damage resulting from infection; e.g. intestinal stem cells replace damaged intestinal epithelial cells [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref027" ref-type="bibr">27</xref>]. Interestingly, the message for intestinal regeneration come not only from the damaged epithelial cells, but also from adjacent (trachea, muscles) and distant tissues, and the brain (reviewed in [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref028" ref-type="bibr">28</xref>]).</p><p>In this study, RNA-seq was used to investigate gene expression, splice variants, TSSs and differential promoter usage in honeybees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I. The new version of the bee genome (Amel_4.5_scaffolds.fa) was used to annotate the genes. The study addressed the global transcriptome response of the bee to <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection, not the response of specific tissues, and identified many transcripts and pathways involved in the interaction between the honeybee and the parasite.</p></sec><sec id="sec002"><title>Material and methods</title><sec id="sec003"><title><italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> spore preparation</title><p><italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> spores were obtained according to Aufauvre et al. 2011 [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref025" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>]. Briefly, forager bees were sampled at the hive entrance. The abdomens of 30 bees were triturated adding 30 ml distilled water. The homogenate was filtered and the resulting suspension was centrifuged for 6 minutes at 800g. The supernatant was removed and the spores resuspended in 3 ml distilled water. The spore concentration was determined by counting using a haemocytometer chamber. Amedian of 8.6 X 10<sup>5</sup>spores/ml was obtained.</p></sec><sec id="sec004"><title>Inoculation of bees with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>and RNA extraction from honeybees</title><p>Frames of <italic>Apis mellifera</italic> capped brood containing "about-to-emerge" pupae were cut out from healthy colonies located in France. The hives were verified as <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> free. Subsequently, the frame of pupae from each colony was divided into 2 equal parts, introduced into two plastic boxes and kept in an incubator at ~30°C with high humidity. The experiment was performed in the apiary of Luz Saint Sauveur located at 00° 00’ 50.4”O and 42° 51’ 57.6” N.</p><p>After about 2 days, the emerging bees were counted, and 30 bees were retained within each box. The two boxes were transferred to the inoculation chamber (25°C) with a 12 hour dark/light (12/12 d/l) cycle. The bees of the "inoculation box" were fed for two days with 2 ml of 66% sucrose solution (w/v) containing 86,000 <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> spores per bee (total of 2.6X10<sup>5</sup> spores per "inoculation box"). The bees of the “control box” were fed with 2 ml of a solution of 66% sucrose without <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> spores for two days. Throughout the experiment, sucrose solution was supplemented only when the Pasteur pipettes in the boxes were completely empty. On days 5, 10 and 15, five bees per box were removed and ground in liquid nitrogen, transferred in micro-tube containing Trizol and stored at -80°C. The number of live/dead bees in both boxes was counted daily and the dead bees were carefully removed. Total RNA was extracted from three bees from each box and at each time point (5, 10 and 15 days post infection, P.I.) using TRIzol (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Milan-Italy) and RNeasy columns (Qiagen). RNA quality was assessed by microcapillary electrophoresis on an Agilent 2001 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies) with RNA 6000 Nanochips. RNA was quantified by spectrophotometry (ND-1000; NanoDrop Technologies).</p><sec id="sec005"><title>Control for <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection</title><p>Presence of <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> RNA in each sample was assessed by PCR [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref002" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>] or qPCR [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref004" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref029" ref-type="bibr">29</xref>]. Only samples from the "inoculation box" that were positive for <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> RNA were used to create RNA sequencing libraries. To verify that the inoculation was successful, the 15 remaining bees after 14 days (P.I) were examined for <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> spores by microscopy and the number of spores present recorded.</p></sec></sec><sec id="sec006"><title>Library preparation for RNA-seq</title><p>Eighteen libraries corresponding to 9 control and 9 infected samples at 5, 10 and 15 days P.I. (3 samples each time-point) were sequenced. TruSeq Sample Prep Kits (Illumina Inc., San Diego, CA) were used to create libraries for 1×100bp single-end sequencing on the Illumina HiSeq 2000 instrument. The sequences obtained were submitted to the Sequence Read Archive at NCBI (PRJNA378655).</p></sec><sec id="sec007"><title>RNA-seq data analysis and functional analysis of differentially expressed genes between control and infected bees</title><p>RNA-seq data analysis was performed as reported by Badaoui et al [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref030" ref-type="bibr">30</xref>]. Briefly, sequence visualization and statistical analyses were performed with FASTQC (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.bioinformatics.bbsrc.ac.uk/projects/fastqch">http://www.bioinformatics.bbsrc.ac.uk/projects/fastqch</ext-link>). Reads were mapped to the latest version of the honeybee reference genome (Amel_4.5_scaffolds.fa) [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref022" ref-type="bibr">22</xref>]) using TopHat v2.0.10 with default parameters [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref031" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>]. Transcript assembly was performed using Cufflinks v2.2.0 [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>]. Once the short read sequences were assembled, the output files were merged using the Cuffmerge [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref031" ref-type="bibr">31</xref>] function and processed using Cuffcompare [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>], along with a reference GTF annotation file downloaded from the beebase database (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://hymenopteragenome.org/beebase/">http://hymenopteragenome.org/beebase/</ext-link>). Differential expression analysis was performed using the Cuffdiff function [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref032" ref-type="bibr">32</xref>]. Three comparisons of gene expression were made between the control and infected bees at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I. For all the analyses, a feature was considered significant if the false discovery rate (FDR) was less than 0.05. The differentially expressed genes at 5, 10 and 15 days P.I were mapped to pathways from the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref033" ref-type="bibr">33</xref>]. The statistical analyses for bee survival and hunger level were performed using the R software "stats" package.</p></sec><sec id="sec008"><title>Proboscis Extension Reflex assay (PER) to assess hunger levels by sucrose uptake behavior</title><p>After day 14, eight bees from each box were captured individually with forceps and each bee was placed individually in a glass vial and chilled on ice for 1 min. The bees were fixed to a long plastic drinking straw with tape around the thorax. Testing began 1h17min after the last bees were attached to the straws. The antennae were touched with a droplet of sucrose and if a bee responded by fully extending the proboscis—a Proboscis Extension Response (PER)—was recorded. Each bee was assayed for PER with a concentration series of 0.1%, 0.3%, 1%, 3%, 10% and 30% sucrose solution. Desensitization with water was done between each sucrose concentration. The number of <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> spores in each bee was determined under a microscope after the PER test.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="results" id="sec009"><title>Results</title><sec id="sec010"><title>Honeybees infection with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>: Infection status, survival rates and hunger analysis</title><p>Infection with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> was assessed by PCR and qPCR: only three out of five bees sampled from the "inoculated box" at 5 day P.I. were positive for <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>, while all 5 bees were positive at days10 and 15 P.I. <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> was not detected in any bees from the "control box". After day14 P.I., 15 bees were examined for the presence of Nosema spores under the microscope and the number of spores recorded. All the inoculated bees were infected, with a mean of 5.0 x10<sup>5</sup>spores per bee, and all the control bees were free from any spore (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s001">S1 Table</xref>).</p><p>Survival of infected bees at day 5 P.I. was significantly decreased (p<0.1): 83% compared to 100% for the control bees (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s006">S1 Fig</xref>). However, the survival rates between the infected and control bees, were not statistically significant at days 10 and 15 P.I. Bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> had increased levels of hunger compared with controls, assessed by the Proboscis Extension Response and feeding experiments (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s007">S2 Fig</xref>).An increase in the Proboscis Extension Response was seen especially at intermediate and high sucrose concentrations; 10% of sucrose solution (p-value<0.1) and 30% (p-value<0.1).</p></sec><sec id="sec011"><title>1. Differentially expressed genes, isoforms and TSSs, and differential promoter usage in honeybees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic></title><sec id="sec012"><title>1.1. RNA-seq reads features and statistics</title><p>The mean of the reads produced from the eighteen libraries was 13.8 M per library. The mapping rate was, on average, 70% except for one library which had a low mapping rate of 29% and which was discarded from further analyses (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s002">S2 Table</xref>).The number of expressed unique genes and isoforms in infected and non-infected bees were 15694and 33182, respectively. The most highly expressed genes, with Fragments Per Kilobase of exon per Million fragments mapped (FPKM) between 1000 and 10000, represented a small fraction of the total genes (0.9%). Genes expressed at a low level, with FPKM between 1 and 10, were considerably more abundant (30–32%). Genes with intermediate expression, FPKM values from 100 to 1000 were the most abundant (33–36%).</p><p>The differentially expressed genes, isoforms, TSS and differential promoter usage between control and infected bees were respectively {372;226;274;8} at day 5 P.I., {158;85;116;8} at day 10 P.I. and {67;27;42;0} at day 15 P.I. (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s003">S3 Table</xref>).Among the differentially expressed genes, 53%, 50% and 30% were also differentially expressed at the isoform level, at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I., respectively(see Venn diagram, <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s008">S3 Fig</xref>). The transcripts with altered forms at more than one time point of infection (days 5, 10 and 15 P.I.) were 15, 7 and 12 for the genes, isoforms and TSS, respectively (see Venn diagram in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone.0173438.g001">Fig 1</xref>).</p><fig id="pone.0173438.g001" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0173438.g001</object-id><label>Fig 1</label><caption><title>Venn diagram illustrating the significantly affected genes (A), isoforms (B) and TSS (C) between infections at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0173438.g001"></graphic></fig></sec><sec id="sec013"><title>1.2. Transcriptional, post-transcriptional regulation and differential promoter usage in bees after infection with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic></title><p>Generally, transciptionally regulated isoforms haddifferent TSSs whilst post-transcriptionally regulated isoforms had the same TSSs (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s009">S4 Fig</xref>, [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref024" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>]).The transcriptional start sites and isoforms of the top twenty most differentially expressed genes (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s003">S3 Table</xref>) at each time point (days 5, 10 and 15 P.I.) were investigated to assess if they were regulated at transcriptional or post-transcriptional levels, or both.</p><p>Three groups of genes were defined:</p><list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>Group1:“Un-spliced and Transcriptionally regulated” genes that had one isoform and one TSS.This group had 9, 6 and 10 genesat days 5, 10 and 15 P.I. respectively (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s010">S5</xref>, <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s011">S6</xref> and <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s012">S7</xref> Figs (group 1)). Most of the genes in this group have a role in the immune response (e.g. GB40713, GB43007, and GB42217)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Group 2: “Spliced and Transcriptionally regulated” genes that had more than one isoform but only one TSS for each isoform. This group had 5, 8 and 3 genes at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I, respectively (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s010">S5</xref>, <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s011">S6</xref> and <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s012">S7</xref> Figs (group 2)).Many of these genes are involved in carbohydrate metabolism and ion transport (e.g. GB51580, GB45152, and GB46516)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Group 3: “Spliced and both Transcriptionally and Post-Transcriptionally regulated” genes with more than one isoform and more than one TSS. This group, contained genes with isoforms that are transcriptionally regulated and other isoforms which are post-transcriptionally regulated and had 6, 6 and 7 genes at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I, respectively (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s010">S5</xref>, <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s011">S6</xref> and <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s012">S7</xref> Figs (group 3)).These genes are involved, among other functions, in cuticle biosynthesis, trans-membrane transport activity and ATP binding (e.g. GB42218, GB45300 and GB47723).</p></list-item></list><p>Differential use of promoters between the control and infected bees was investigated as described by Mortazavi <italic>et al</italic> [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref024" ref-type="bibr">24</xref>].This approach groups the primary transcripts of a gene based on the promoter used, followed by testing isoform abundance between the control and the infected bees. Eight genes showed different promoter use at day 5 P.I (<italic>GB46442</italic>, <italic>GB41734</italic>, <italic>GB42277</italic>, <italic>GB44487</italic>, <italic>GB46749</italic>, <italic>GB42364</italic>, <italic>GB44323 and GB40485</italic>), 8 genes at day 10 P.I (<italic>GB40787</italic>, <italic>GB48346</italic>, <italic>GB47239</italic>, <italic>GB43964</italic>, <italic>GB40688</italic>, <italic>GB42265</italic>, <italic>GB55747 and GB55915</italic>) and none at day 15 P.I (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s003">S3 Table</xref>).</p></sec><sec id="sec014"><title>1.3. Gene expression characteristics at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I. with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic></title><p>Principle component analysis (PCA) of the 675 genes which were differentially expressed in at least one pairwise comparison (control vs infection at day 5, control vs infection at day 10, control vs infections at day 15) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone.0173438.g002">Fig 2</xref>) showed a clear difference between samples collected at days 5, 10 and 15. The control and infected samples showed the greatest difference at day 5 P.I while this difference was lower at day 10 P.I and no difference between controls and infected bees was found at day 15 P.I. This is reflected in the number of genes that were found to be differentially expressed between the infected bees and controls: 372, 158 and 93 at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I, respectively. The overlap between differentially expressed genes at different time points was greater than expected by chance for 5 days P.I versus 10 days P.I (p = 1.77e-52, hypergeometric test), 5 days P.I versus 15 days P.I (p = 6.55e-33) and10 days P.I versus 15 days P.I (p = 1.92e-33).</p><fig id="pone.0173438.g002" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0173438.g002</object-id><label>Fig 2</label><caption><title>Principal component analysis of RNA-seq data.</title><p>Gene expression changes were investigated at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I. in honeybees infected (INF) with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> or no treatment (CR). The PCA was performed using normalized RNA-Seq data of 675 genes differentially expressed in at least one pairwise comparison: control vs infection at day 5 10 P.I or 15 P.I.Clear differences were seen between samples collected at days 5, 10 and 15 suggesting that ageing of the bees has a larger effect on the pattern of gene expression pattern than infection status.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0173438.g002"></graphic></fig><p>At day 5 PI there was a strong down-regulation of Royal jelly genes: <italic>Mrjp1</italic>, <italic>Mrjp2</italic>, <italic>Mrjp3</italic>, <italic>Mrjp4</italic> and <italic>Mrjp6</italic> (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s004">S4 Table</xref>) and a strong up-regulation of eight serine proteases: <italic>SP22</italic>, <italic>SP40</italic>,<italic>SP44</italic>, <italic>SP17</italic>, <italic>SP18</italic>, <italic>SP35</italic>, <italic>SP36</italic>, <italic>SPH50</italic> as well as the down-regulation of three other serine proteases: <italic>SP34</italic>, <italic>SPH19</italic> (serine protease homolog 19) and <italic>SPH42</italic> (serine protease homolog 42) (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s003">S3</xref> and <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s004">S4</xref> Tables).</p></sec><sec id="sec015"><title>1.4. Pathways affected during honeybee infection by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic></title><p>The most enriched KEGG pathway at all-time points (5, 10 and 15 days P.I) was 'metabolic pathways' (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s005">S5A Table</xref>, <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s013">S8 Fig</xref>) which includes 'Energy metabolism', 'carbohydrate metabolism', 'amino acids metabolism' and 'lipid metabolism'. The number of genes differentially expressed between infected and control bees in the metabolic pathways decreases considerably from day 5 P.I (29 genes) to day 10 P.I (17 genes) and day 15 P.I (9 genes). The changes in the expression of 29 genes in this pathway were followed through the time-course of the challenge (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone.0173438.g003">Fig 3</xref>). Except the chitinase 5 (<italic>Cht5</italic>) gene expression of which increased from day 5 P.I to day 10 P.I and to day 15 P.I, expression of all the other genes decreased from day 5 P.I to days 10/15 P.I. Some genes reached their lowest level of expression at day 10 P.I (<italic>GB44841</italic>, <italic>GB45654</italic>, <italic>GB50218</italic>, <italic>GB51814</italic>, <italic>GB42963</italic>, <italic>GB49240</italic>, <italic>GB55706</italic>, <italic>GB42434</italic>), while others had the lowest level at day 15 P.I (<italic>GB52756</italic>, <italic>GB51751</italic>, <italic>GB52724</italic>, <italic>GB42425</italic>,<italic>GB52923</italic>, <italic>GB48905</italic>, <italic>GB44367</italic>, <italic>GB40022</italic>, <italic>GB55705</italic>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="pone.0173438.g003">Fig 3</xref>).The number of differentially expressed genes in the lysosome pathway, which is within the “metabolic pathways”, was also enriched at day 5 P.I (<italic>GB53306</italic>, <italic>GB43825</italic>, <italic>GB51751</italic>, <italic>GB54097</italic>, <italic>GB55242</italic>, <italic>GB42616</italic>) and day 10 P.I (<italic>GB53306</italic>, <italic>GB43825</italic>, <italic>GB51751</italic>, <italic>GB53579</italic>) although not at day 15 P.I. (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s005">S5A Table</xref>).</p><fig id="pone.0173438.g003" orientation="portrait" position="float"><object-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0173438.g003</object-id><label>Fig 3</label><caption><title>Expression profiles of the genes involved in the 'metabolic pathways'.</title><p>The X axis shows the time points following infection (days 5, 10 and 15 P.I). On the Y axis, genes expression fold changes.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="pone.0173438.g003"></graphic></fig><p>The KEGG annotation database contains little information on the bee signaling pathways. Therefore the differentially expressed genes were used to manually infer other pathways potentially modified during infection by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>. This identified the 'Immunity pathway', 'Trehalose transporter pathway', 'Cuticular pathway', 'Cytochrome pathway', 'Serine protease pathway' and 'Neurogenesis pathway' as being affected by the infection (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s005">S5B Table</xref>).</p></sec></sec></sec><sec sec-type="conclusions" id="sec016"><title>Discussion</title><p>In this work we report differentially expressed genes, isoforms, TSS and promoter usage associated with infection of the bees with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>.</p><sec id="sec017"><title>Regulation complexity of differentially expressed genes in bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic></title><p>The most differentially expressed genes between uninfected and infected bees were classified into three groups according to their transcriptional/post-transcriptional regulation. The first two groups included genes involved in the innate immune response. These genes did not show any evidence of different isoforms and/or post-transcriptional regulation. Examples of these groups include: <italic>GB48966</italic>, a <italic>homeotic protein caudal</italic>, which operates post-embryonically in the intestine where it regulates antimicrobial peptide levels to maintain the normal gut flora [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref034" ref-type="bibr">34</xref>]; <italic>GB51833</italic>, <italic>Sodium dependent nutrient amino acid trasporter</italic>, which contributes to the synthesis of catecholamines for sclerotization pathways involved incuticle colour, wound curing, and immune responses [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref035" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>].</p><p>Post transcriptional regulation is responsible for expanding protein functional diversity and differs dependent on environmental conditions and developmental stage to expand phenotypic plasticity on the molecular level [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref036" ref-type="bibr">36</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref037" ref-type="bibr">37</xref>]. However, the selection of the incorrect splices sites may cause gene dysfunction [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref038" ref-type="bibr">38</xref>]. The genes in these first two groups may be under strong selection pressure to prevent the emergence of new isoforms or alternative transcriptional regulation to avoid loss of function.</p><p><italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> is amitochondriate, and so has high dependency on host ATP. The energy demands of the parasite increase the energy requirement for the bee, which is seen in the increased hunger of infected bees revealed by the PER test. GB41033, which is involved in the metabolism of the sugar, was highly expressed in infected bees, and is consistent with increased sugar metabolism associated with the higher energy requirement [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>].<italic>GB42217</italic>, <italic>acyl-CoA desaturase 1-like</italic>, has a role in oxidation-reduction process following infection [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref039" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>].</p><p>The third group includes genes mainly regulate biochemical and developmental processes, and includes receptors such as serpentine (<italic>GB45151</italic>) that regulate the expression of multiple classes of developmental genes [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref039" ref-type="bibr">39</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref040" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>], SLC6 (GB51834) that transport a whole suite of molecules across cell membranes [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref041" ref-type="bibr">41</xref>] and hedgehog (<italic>GB45300</italic>) which is required for normal regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation during embryonic stages [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref040" ref-type="bibr">40</xref>].</p><p>This third group genes includes immune function genes and shows abundant examples of alternative splicing. There are many examples where the immune system has been shown to use diverse mechanisms of gene regulation to increase the versatility of response, including alternative splicing, different TSS and promoter usage [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref042" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref043" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>], for example, in vertebrates alternative splicing of CD44, a protein involved in T cell homing, is crucial for T cell function [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref043" ref-type="bibr">43</xref>].The transcription factors p63, p73 and p53, implicated in cell response to stress and development, and encodes multiple proteins as a result of post transcriptional regulation [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref042" ref-type="bibr">42</xref>]. Diverse post-transcriptional regulation mechanisms seen for genes involved in bee immune response, cell signals and development may increase the immune repertoire to respond to infection.</p><p>Alternative promoter usage was found for 8 genes at days 5 and 10P.I in comparison with uninfected controls, but none were seen at day 15 P.I. This suggests that alternative promoter usage is important for bee-<italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> interaction as seen in previous studies where differential promoter usage has been associated with the diversity of gene expression pattern to deal with different pathogen challenges [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref044" ref-type="bibr">44</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref045" ref-type="bibr">45</xref>].That no alternative promoter usage was found at day 15 P.I and that a small number of differentially expressed genes is seen at this time point compared with time points 5 and 10 P.I. may suggest that the host and parasite are becoming adjusted to each other. It has been reported that genes with alternative promoters use are also more likely to be differentially expressed [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref046" ref-type="bibr">46</xref>]. Genes related to human cancer which have altered expression have on average 2 promoters compared with an average of 1.5 promoters for the other human genes [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref047" ref-type="bibr">47</xref>].</p><p>The overrepresentation of the splice variants, 30%-53% of genes between 5 and 10 days PI respectively of differentially expressed genes, seen following infection, suggests that extending protein diversity is important for bees to deal with the <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranea</italic> infection. Therefore, start site and post-transcriptional regulation is potentially important for tuning the response of the bee to <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranea</italic> infection, possibly by controlling the strength and the duration of the response [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref048" ref-type="bibr">48</xref>]. This is in accordance with findings reported for Drosophila melanogaster [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref049" ref-type="bibr">49</xref>] and mammals [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref050" ref-type="bibr">50</xref>] where splice variants play an important role in dealing with infection. Interestingly, alternative TSSs have been associated with stable differences in behavior in honeybees [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref051" ref-type="bibr">51</xref>].</p><p>Genes involved in the “metabolic pathways” (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s005">S5 Table</xref>) have higher expression at day 5 P.I than days 10 and 15 P.I. This suggests an increased energy demand placed on the bee by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> during early stages of the infection which is in agreement with the PER test responses.</p></sec><sec id="sec018"><title>Pathways enriched in bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic></title><p>The global pathway 'metabolic pathways' showed a general increase in expression at day 5 P.I. Increased energy metabolism via carbohydrate catabolism is a key feature of bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>. Increased energy need and hence hunger was seen in the present study from the PER tests.<italic>Cht5</italic>, <italic>GMCOX3</italic>, <italic>LOC55124</italic> and <italic>LOC408474</italic> were the most highly expressed genes in this pathway at day 5 P.I with a log fold change greater than 1.5. <italic>Cht5</italic> and <italic>GMCOX3</italic> are involved in chitin metabolism and immune response respectively, and have previously been found to be modulated during honeybee infection with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>cerania</italic> [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref025" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>]. While <italic>GMCOX3</italic> expression decreased after day 5 P.I, expression of <italic>Cht5</italic> continued to increase to reach log fold changes of 4.28 and 4.52 at days 5 and 10 P.I, respectively. <italic>LOC55124</italic> and <italic>LOC408474</italic> are involved in protein and lipid metabolism, respectively.</p><p>The lysosome pathway also plays an important role in bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> which is shown by the genes GB53306, GB43825, GB51751, GB54097, GB55242, and GB42616in this pathway having increased levels of expression in infected bees. Lysosome has been implicated in antifungal and antiviral activity [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref052" ref-type="bibr">52</xref>]. An increased level of lysosome activity maybe a defense strategy used by the bee to digest the <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> mycelia. Furthermore, the pathways: 'Immunity', 'Trehalose transporter', 'Cuticular', 'Cytochrome', 'Serine protease' and 'Neurogenesis' were modulated in infected bees compared with controls (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s005">S5B Table</xref>). These pathways have also been found to be regulated by bees in response to <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>, <italic>N</italic>. <italic>Microsporidia</italic>, <italic>E</italic>.<italic>coli and</italic> Paenibacillus larva infections [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref025" ref-type="bibr">25</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref053" ref-type="bibr">53</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="sec019"><title>Infection with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> reduces the bees energy reserves</title><p>Food quantity and quality is a key factor regulating the development of female larvae, either into a queen or a worker. Specifically, the Major Royal Jelly Proteins (MRJPs) are consumed to some extent by all larvae, but mainly by the larvae destine to become the adult queen [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref035" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>].The Royal Jelly genes: <italic>Mrjp1</italic>, <italic>Mrjp2</italic>, <italic>Mrjp3</italic>, <italic>Mrjp4</italic> and <italic>Mrjp6</italic>were down regulated at day 5 P.I. The protein hexamerin (<italic>HEX</italic>) is accumulated by the bees to enhance their growth [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref054" ref-type="bibr">54</xref>].Expression of this gene was not changed at day 5 P.I but was down-regulated at days 10 and 15 P.I. Down-regulation of <italic>HEX110</italic>, <italic>HEX70b</italic> and <italic>HEX70c</italic> has previously been reported in bees infected with <italic>Paenibacillus larvae</italic> and <italic>chalkbrood fungus</italic> [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref055" ref-type="bibr">55</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref056" ref-type="bibr">56</xref>]. Neuropeptide Y (<italic>NPY</italic>), has been implicated in regulating food intake [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref057" ref-type="bibr">57</xref>].The receptor for this neuropeptide was up-regulated following <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection. Insulin growth factor binding protein was also up-regulated <bold>(</bold><xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s003">S3 Table</xref>). Insulin signaling regulates nutritional balance [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref057" ref-type="bibr">57</xref>]. Importantly, among the top pathways differentially expressed (up-regulated) at day 5 P.I, were 'Energy metabolism', 'lipid metabolism' and 'carbohydrate metabolism'. Therefore <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection seems to affect metabolism and nutritional status of the infected bees. The increased transcription of four genes mapping to the trehalose transporter (<italic>LOC413576</italic>, <italic>LOC726505</italic>, <italic>LOC724874</italic> and <italic>LOC413575)</italic>, which constitute the main major carbohydrate energy storage molecule in insects, supports this observation.</p><p>Many studies have reported changes in nutrition [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref014" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref058" ref-type="bibr">58</xref>] and increased feeding rate [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref059" ref-type="bibr">59</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref060" ref-type="bibr">60</xref>] in parasitized insects. In particular, studies of bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> have reported a higher sugar demand [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref014" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref060" ref-type="bibr">60</xref>–<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref064" ref-type="bibr">64</xref>]. <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> requires ATP to replicate within the honey bee mid-gut tissue [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref065" ref-type="bibr">65</xref>] but being amitochondriate, has limited metabolic capacity and is unable to produce ATP.As a consequence it is completely dependent on host ATP [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref066" ref-type="bibr">66</xref>,<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref067" ref-type="bibr">67</xref>]. <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> therefore imposes an energetic demand on its host, which is consistent with the changes expression of metabolism related genes the increased hunger responses and lower survival seen in the present study.</p></sec><sec id="sec020"><title><italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection alters amino acid metabolism and suppresses the bee immune response</title><p>The amino acids metabolic pathway was modulated by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection. In a previous study, worker bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> were found to have altered amino acids titers in their haemolymph [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref068" ref-type="bibr">68</xref>], which may affect the immune function [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref069" ref-type="bibr">69</xref>–<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref071" ref-type="bibr">71</xref>]. Disturbance of protein metabolism may be a strategy adopted by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> to suppress the bee’s immune response [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>] and promote its own survival. Bees infected with Varroa mite, show changes the expression of genes related to protein metabolism, including the down regulation of the Vg [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref072" ref-type="bibr">72</xref>–<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref074" ref-type="bibr">74</xref>]. In the present study the expression of genes coding for the Vg, MRJP protein were found to be down-regulated.</p><p>Following infection by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>, a large number of genes coding for serine proteases were modulated (<italic>SP17</italic>, <italic>SP18</italic>, <italic>SP22</italic>, <italic>SP34</italic>, <italic>SP35</italic>, <italic>SP36</italic>, <italic>SP40</italic>, <italic>SP44</italic>, <italic>SPH19</italic>, <italic>SPH42</italic>,<italic>SPH50</italic>) at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I. The serine proteases are implicated in the immune response for Drosophila where 94 out of 201 serine protease genes are involved in diverse immune protease cascades [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref053" ref-type="bibr">53</xref>].</p><p>Except SP36 and SPH42, all these genes showed alternative splicing and differential TSS (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="pone.0173438.s003">S3 Table</xref>) which might increase their expression plasticity and function. Activation of these molecules in the arthropod hemolymph is a central component of several immune responses, including the activation of antimicrobial peptide synthesis, and modulation of hemocyte function [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref075" ref-type="bibr">75</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref076" ref-type="bibr">76</xref>].</p><p>Therefore, in addition to placing additional energy demands on the host <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> also seems to affect the immune response of infected bees.</p><p>Honeybees have many immune pathways and defense mechanisms consisting of both cellular and humoral immune response [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref016" ref-type="bibr">16</xref>] including antimicrobial peptide (AMPs) synthesis [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref077" ref-type="bibr">77</xref>]. Honeybee humoral immunity involves four main antimicrobial peptides: abaecin, apidaecin, defensin and hymenoptaecin [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref020" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>]. In the present study, apidaecin (<italic>Apid1</italic>, <italic>Apid73</italic>), defencin (<italic>Def1</italic>) and hymenoptaecin (<italic>GB51223</italic>) were strongly down-regulated at day 5 P.I compared with uninfected controls but not at days 10 and 15 P.I, except for the hymenoptaecin gene that was up-regulated at day 15 P.I. All these genes have at least two differentially expressed isoforms and TSS [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref078" ref-type="bibr">78</xref>]. Different sequences of apidaecin arising from post translational regulation have been reported [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref017" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>], and Klaudiny et al [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref078" ref-type="bibr">78</xref>] have reported a novel defensin isoform in honeybee. The finding reported here suggests that specific splice variation and TSS may occur in response to pathogens.</p><p>The egg yolk protein vitellogenin, which has been implicated in regulating the number of haemocytes [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref080" ref-type="bibr">80</xref>] was significantly decreased following <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection at day 5 P.I. Immune suppression has been reported following infection with by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref013" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>] and the Varroa mite [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref081" ref-type="bibr">81</xref>].</p><p>Two genes coding for the major components of pathogen recognition (PGRPs) were modulated in this study: peptidoglycan recognition protein S1 (<italic>PGRP-S1</italic>) was down-regulated and peptidoglycan recognition protein S3 (<italic>PGRP-S3</italic>) was up-regulated. Honeybees have four PGRPs, PGRP-S1, PGRP-S2, PGRP-S3, and PGRP-LC [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>], either act as recognition proteins, or can degrade bacterial cell wall through amidase activity [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref082" ref-type="bibr">82</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref083" ref-type="bibr">83</xref>].Honeybees have much lower diversity of PGRP than Drosophila and Anopheles which have 13 and seven genes, respectively. This may limit the diversity of pathogens that bees can recognize compared with drosophila [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref079" ref-type="bibr">79</xref>]. The present study identified that all the honeybee PGRPs were subjected to alternative splicing and TSS differentiation, which may be an evolutionary strategy to diversify the protein repertoire and overcome the limited number of PGRPs.</p></sec><sec id="sec021"><title>Cuticular, olfactory and neuronal modifications during infection of bees with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic></title><p>Cuticle coatings are important to protect insects from pathogens and cuticle structure may be altered during infection [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref084" ref-type="bibr">84</xref>]. In this work, seven cuticle genes (<italic>LOC724464</italic>, <italic>CPR19</italic>, <italic>LOC725547</italic>, <italic>Cpap3-a</italic>, <italic>CPR24</italic>, <italic>CPR5</italic> and <italic>Cpap3-dC</italic>) were down-regulated at day 5 P.I compared with controls and one additional gene (<italic>CPR2</italic>) was down-regulated at day 10 P.I. All these genes showed alternative splicing and differential TSS. The down-regulation of these cuticle genes maybe a strategy of the pathogen to improve its survival, by facilitating transfer among members of infected hive. Expression of the cuticle genes is associated with hygienic behavior [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref085" ref-type="bibr">85</xref>, <xref rid="pone.0173438.ref086" ref-type="bibr">86</xref>] which may also affect parasite transfer and survival.</p><p>Infection by <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> may also change the behavior of bees by altering olfactory acuity. Three genes coding for (<italic>Obp14</italic>, <italic>Obp18</italic> and <italic>Obp3</italic>), were down-regulated at day 5 P.I. compared with controls, two (<italic>obp3</italic>, <italic>obp17</italic>) at day 10 P.I and two (<italic>obp14</italic>, <italic>obp3</italic>) at day 15 P.I. The odor binding proteins are not restricted to olfaction and they have other functions, including the adaptation to different environments [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref087" ref-type="bibr">87</xref>]. Changes in expression of odor binding proteins following <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> may change the behavioral or physiological responses of bees.</p><p>Transcripts involved in neurogenesis such as Slit genes, <italic>LOC410555</italic>, <italic>LOC724772</italic>, leucine-rich repeat neuronal protein 3 (<italic>LOC724187</italic>), neuropeptide and neurotransmitter transporter 8, were modulated at day 5 P.I but not at days 10 and 15 P.I. Slitis part of a large network of genes involved in tissue regeneration and has been shown to be down regulated following infection by Nosema [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref011" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>]. Changes in expression of genes involved in neuronal development have also been reported following infestation with the Varroa mite [<xref rid="pone.0173438.ref088" ref-type="bibr">88</xref>].Therefore bee parasites may affect behavior either to enhance their survival or to promote the spread within the colony.</p></sec></sec><sec sec-type="conclusions" id="sec022"><title>Conclusions</title><p><italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection results in the regulation of gene function, both at the level of expression and through changes in promoter usage and post translational variation. The effects of <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> infection are seen on expression of genes involved in three key processes:1) energetic stress which is reflected in elevated hunger levels, 2) the modulation of the metabolic pathways, particularly immune function and 3) changes in behavior mediated through altered olfactory or hygiene related gene expression. These observed changes could be associated with the host responding to clear the infection, and with the infecting <italic>N</italic>.<italic>Ceranea</italic> altering host gene expression to promote its survival.</p></sec><sec sec-type="supplementary-material" id="sec023"><title>Supporting information</title><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s001"><label>S1 Table</label><caption><title>Counts of <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic>in control and infected bees with N.Ceranea.</title><p>100% of the inoculated bees used for the bioassay were infected by Nosema while no control bees were infected.</p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s001.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s002"><label>S2 Table</label><caption><title>(i) RNA-seq reads numbers generated per sample, (ii) RNA-Seq reads number and percentage mapped to the honeybee genome and (iii) the number and percentage of RNA-seq reads that mapped to more than one site in the genome.</title><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s002.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s003"><label>S3 Table</label><caption><title>Differentially expressed genes, isoforms, TSS and differential promoter usage during infection with <italic>N</italic>.<italic>Ceranea</italic> at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I.</title><p>(XLS)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s003.xls"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s004"><label>S4 Table</label><caption><title>Genes differentially expressed (|FC|> = 1.5) between infected and control bees at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I.</title><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s004.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s005"><label>S5 Table</label><caption><p>A. mapping of the differentially expressed genes at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I. to pathways from the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database. The top pathways in which at least 4 genes were involved were selected. B. Manually inferred pathways using the differentially expressed genes at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I.</p><p>(ODS)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s005.ods"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s006"><label>S1 Fig</label><caption><title>Survival rates of control and infected bees with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> up to 14 days Post Infection (P.I.).</title><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s006.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s007"><label>S2 Fig</label><caption><title>Percentage of bees triggering a Proboscis Extension Response at different concentration sucrose solution (30%,10%, 3%, 1%, 0.3% and 0.1%).</title><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s007.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s008"><label>S3 Fig</label><caption><title>Venn diagram illustrating the significantly affected (A) genes (B), isoforms and (C) TSSs found in bees infected with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> at days 5, 10 and 15 P.I.</title><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s008.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s009"><label>S4 Fig</label><caption><title>Cufflinks approach for estimating transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory effects on overall transcript output. Let’s consider a transcript with two isoforms (A, B).</title><p>When the abundance of isoforms A, B and C are grouped by TSS, the changes in the relative abundance of the TSS groups indicate transcriptional regulation (A+B vs. C). Post-transcriptional effects are observed as changes in the levels of the isoforms in a single TSS group (A vs. B) (Adapted from Trapnell et al. 2012).</p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s009.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s010"><label>S5 Fig</label><caption><title>Transcriptional/Post-transcriptional regulation of the top twenty significant genes following the infection of bees with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> at day 5 P.I.</title><p>(Group 1) Un-spliced and transcriptionally regulated genes,(Group 2) spliced and post-transcriptionally regulated genes and(Group 3) spliced and both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally regulated genes. For each transcript, the “XLOC”, “TSS” and “TCONS” suffixes correspond to the genes, TSSs and isoforms, respectively. Differentially expressed isoforms with different TSSs are transcriptionally regulated, while isoforms with the same TSS are regulated at the post-transcriptional level.</p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s010.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s011"><label>S6 Fig</label><caption><title>Transcriptional/Post-transcriptional regulation of the top twenty significant genes following the infection of bees with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> at day 10 P.I.</title><p>(Group 1) Un-spliced and transcriptionally regulated genes,(Group 2) spliced and post-transcriptionally regulated genes and(Group 3) spliced and both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally regulated genes. For each transcript,the “XLOC”, “TSS” and “TCONS” suffixes correspond to the genes, TSSs and isoforms, respectively. Differentially expressed isoforms with different TSSs are transcriptionally regulated, while isoforms with the same TSS are regulated at the post-transcriptional level.</p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s011.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s012"><label>S7 Fig</label><caption><title>Transcriptional/Post-transcriptional regulation of the top twenty significant genes following the infection of bees with <italic>N</italic>. <italic>ceranae</italic> at day 15 P.I.</title><p>(Group 1) Un-spliced and transcriptionally regulated genes,(Group 2) spliced and post-transcriptionally regulated genes and(Group 3) spliced and both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally regulated genes. For each transcript, the “XLOC”, “TSS” and “TCONS” suffixes correspond to the genes, TSSs and isoforms, respectively. Differentially expressed isoforms with different TSSs are transcriptionally regulated, while isoforms with the same TSS are regulated at the post-transcriptional level.</p><p>(PDF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s012.pdf"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material><supplementary-material content-type="local-data" id="pone.0173438.s013"><label>S8 Fig</label><caption><title>The 'metabolic pathways' enriched following the infection of bees with <italic>N</italic>.<italic>Ceranea</italic>.</title><p>This global pathway includes mainly 'energy metabolism', 'carbohydrate metabolism', 'amino acids metabolism' and 'lipid metabolism' related genes.</p><p>(TIF)</p></caption><media xlink:href="pone.0173438.s013.tif"><caption><p>Click here for additional data file.</p></caption></media></supplementary-material></sec></body><back><ack><p>This project was supported by the Eureka-Eurostars Project E!5069 NewBone. The authors would like to thank Maria Cecere for the technical help. 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