Potential anticancer properties of bioactive compounds of Gymnema sylvestre and its biofunctionalized silver nanoparticles
Identifieur interne : 001971 ( Ncbi/Merge ); précédent : 001970; suivant : 001972Potential anticancer properties of bioactive compounds of Gymnema sylvestre and its biofunctionalized silver nanoparticles
Auteurs : Kantha Deivi Arunachalam [Inde] ; Lilly Baptista Arun [Inde] ; Sathesh Kumar Annamalai [Inde] ; Aarrthy M. Arunachalam [États-Unis]Source :
- International Journal of Nanomedicine [ 1176-9114 ] ; 2014.
Abstract
The preliminary phytochemical screening for bioactive compounds from aqueous extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, steroids, and saponins. Biofunctionalized SNPs were synthesized using silver nitrate and characterized by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction for size and shape. The characterized biofunctionalized
The biofunctionlized
Our results show that the anticancer properties of the bioactive compounds of
Url:
DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S71182
PubMed: 25565802
PubMed Central: 4274148
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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Potential anticancer properties of bioactive compounds of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic> and its biofunctionalized silver nanoparticles</title><author><name sortKey="Arunachalam, Kantha Deivi" sort="Arunachalam, Kantha Deivi" uniqKey="Arunachalam K" first="Kantha Deivi" last="Arunachalam">Kantha Deivi Arunachalam</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-ijn-10-031">Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu, India</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Inde</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tamil Nadu</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Arun, Lilly Baptista" sort="Arun, Lilly Baptista" uniqKey="Arun L" first="Lilly Baptista" last="Arun">Lilly Baptista Arun</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-ijn-10-031">Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu, India</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Inde</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tamil Nadu</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Annamalai, Sathesh Kumar" sort="Annamalai, Sathesh Kumar" uniqKey="Annamalai S" first="Sathesh Kumar" last="Annamalai">Sathesh Kumar Annamalai</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-ijn-10-031">Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu, India</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Inde</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tamil Nadu</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Arunachalam, Aarrthy M" sort="Arunachalam, Aarrthy M" uniqKey="Arunachalam A" first="Aarrthy M" last="Arunachalam">Aarrthy M. Arunachalam</name><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="af2-ijn-10-031">Division of Educational Services, Kaplan University (Medical), Washington DC, USA</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Division of Educational Services, Kaplan University (Medical), Washington DC</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Washington (district de Columbia)</settlement><region type="state">District de Columbia</region></placeName></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">25565802</idno><idno type="pmc">4274148</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4274148</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4274148</idno><idno type="doi">10.2147/IJN.S71182</idno><date when="2014">2014</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000F93</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Curation">000F92</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Checkpoint">000733</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Ncbi/Merge">001971</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Potential anticancer properties of bioactive compounds of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic> and its biofunctionalized silver nanoparticles</title><author><name sortKey="Arunachalam, Kantha Deivi" sort="Arunachalam, Kantha Deivi" uniqKey="Arunachalam K" first="Kantha Deivi" last="Arunachalam">Kantha Deivi Arunachalam</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-ijn-10-031">Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu, India</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Inde</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tamil Nadu</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Arun, Lilly Baptista" sort="Arun, Lilly Baptista" uniqKey="Arun L" first="Lilly Baptista" last="Arun">Lilly Baptista Arun</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-ijn-10-031">Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu, India</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Inde</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tamil Nadu</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Annamalai, Sathesh Kumar" sort="Annamalai, Sathesh Kumar" uniqKey="Annamalai S" first="Sathesh Kumar" last="Annamalai">Sathesh Kumar Annamalai</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="af1-ijn-10-031">Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu, India</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Inde</country><wicri:regionArea>Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tamil Nadu</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Arunachalam, Aarrthy M" sort="Arunachalam, Aarrthy M" uniqKey="Arunachalam A" first="Aarrthy M" last="Arunachalam">Aarrthy M. Arunachalam</name><affiliation wicri:level="3"><nlm:aff id="af2-ijn-10-031">Division of Educational Services, Kaplan University (Medical), Washington DC, USA</nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">États-Unis</country><wicri:regionArea>Division of Educational Services, Kaplan University (Medical), Washington DC</wicri:regionArea><placeName><settlement type="city">Washington (district de Columbia)</settlement><region type="state">District de Columbia</region></placeName></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">International Journal of Nanomedicine</title><idno type="ISSN">1176-9114</idno><idno type="eISSN">1178-2013</idno><imprint><date when="2014">2014</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Background</title><p><italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic> is an ethno-pharmacologically important medicinal plant used in many polyherbal formulations for its potential health benefits. Silver nanoparticles (SNPs) were biofunctionalized using aqueous leaf extracts of <italic>G. sylvestre</italic>. The anticancer properties of the bioactive compounds and the biofunctionalized SNPs were compared using the HT29 human adenoma colon cancer cell line.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>The preliminary phytochemical screening for bioactive compounds from aqueous extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, steroids, and saponins. Biofunctionalized SNPs were synthesized using silver nitrate and characterized by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction for size and shape. The characterized biofunctionalized <italic>G. sylvestre</italic> were tested for its in vitro anticancer activity against HT29 human colon adenocarcinoma cells.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>The biofunctionlized <italic>G. sylvestre</italic> SNPs showed the surface plasmon resonance band at 430 nm. The scanning electron microscopy images showed the presence of spherical nanoparticles of various sizes, which were further determined using the Scherrer equation. In vitro cytotoxic activity of the biofunctionalized green-synthesized SNPs (GSNPs) indicated that the sensitivity of HT29 human colon adenocarcinoma cells for cytotoxic drugs is higher than that of Vero cell line for the same cytotoxic agents and also higher than the bioactive compound of the aqueous extract.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>Our results show that the anticancer properties of the bioactive compounds of <italic>G. sylvestre</italic> can be enhanced through biofunctionalizing the SNPs using the bioactive compounds present in the plant extract without compromising their medicinal properties.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Grover, Jk" uniqKey="Grover J">JK Grover</name></author><author><name sortKey="Yadav, S" uniqKey="Yadav S">S Yadav</name></author><author><name sortKey="Vats, V" uniqKey="Vats V">V Vats</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Int J Nanomedicine</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Int J Nanomedicine</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">International Journal of Nanomedicine</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>International Journal of Nanomedicine</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1176-9114</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1178-2013</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Dove Medical Press</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25565802</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4274148</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.2147/IJN.S71182</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">ijn-10-031</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Original Research</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Potential anticancer properties of bioactive compounds of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic> and its biofunctionalized silver nanoparticles</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Arunachalam</surname><given-names>Kantha Deivi</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-ijn-10-031">1</xref><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-ijn-10-031"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Arun</surname><given-names>Lilly Baptista</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-ijn-10-031">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Annamalai</surname><given-names>Sathesh Kumar</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af1-ijn-10-031">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Arunachalam</surname><given-names>Aarrthy M</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="af2-ijn-10-031">2</xref></contrib></contrib-group><aff id="af1-ijn-10-031"><label>1</label>Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, SRM University, Potheri, Tamil Nadu, India</aff><aff id="af2-ijn-10-031"><label>2</label>Division of Educational Services, Kaplan University (Medical), Washington DC, USA</aff><author-notes><corresp id="c1-ijn-10-031">Correspondence: Kantha Deivi Arunachalam, Center for Environmental Nuclear Research, Directorate of Research, SRM University, Potheri 603203, Tamil Nadu, India, Tel +91 044 2741 7144, Email <email>kanthad.arunachalam@gmail.com</email></corresp></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>16</day><month>12</month><year>2014</year></pub-date><volume>10</volume><fpage>31</fpage><lpage>41</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>© 2015 Arunachalam et al. This work is published by Dove Medical Press Limited, and licensed under Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2015</copyright-year><license><license-p>The full terms of the License are available at <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/</ext-link>. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract><sec><title>Background</title><p><italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic> is an ethno-pharmacologically important medicinal plant used in many polyherbal formulations for its potential health benefits. Silver nanoparticles (SNPs) were biofunctionalized using aqueous leaf extracts of <italic>G. sylvestre</italic>. The anticancer properties of the bioactive compounds and the biofunctionalized SNPs were compared using the HT29 human adenoma colon cancer cell line.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>The preliminary phytochemical screening for bioactive compounds from aqueous extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, steroids, and saponins. Biofunctionalized SNPs were synthesized using silver nitrate and characterized by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction for size and shape. The characterized biofunctionalized <italic>G. sylvestre</italic> were tested for its in vitro anticancer activity against HT29 human colon adenocarcinoma cells.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>The biofunctionlized <italic>G. sylvestre</italic> SNPs showed the surface plasmon resonance band at 430 nm. The scanning electron microscopy images showed the presence of spherical nanoparticles of various sizes, which were further determined using the Scherrer equation. In vitro cytotoxic activity of the biofunctionalized green-synthesized SNPs (GSNPs) indicated that the sensitivity of HT29 human colon adenocarcinoma cells for cytotoxic drugs is higher than that of Vero cell line for the same cytotoxic agents and also higher than the bioactive compound of the aqueous extract.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>Our results show that the anticancer properties of the bioactive compounds of <italic>G. sylvestre</italic> can be enhanced through biofunctionalizing the SNPs using the bioactive compounds present in the plant extract without compromising their medicinal properties.</p></sec></abstract><kwd-group><title>Keywords</title><kwd>G<italic>ymnema sylvestre</italic></kwd><kwd>gymnemic acid</kwd><kwd>biofunctionalized silver nanoparticles</kwd><kwd>anticancer activity</kwd><kwd>HT29 cell line</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="f1-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>Surface plasmon resonance of silver nanoparticles.</p><p><bold>Notes:</bold> (<bold>A</bold>) silver nitrate solution; (<bold>B</bold>) green-synthesized silver nanoparticles in ruby red color after 30 minutes.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig1"></graphic></fig><fig id="f2-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 2</label><caption><p>Time-dependent absorption spectra of silver nanoparticles after the bioreduction of silver in the aqueous extract of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic>.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig2"></graphic></fig><fig id="f3-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 3</label><caption><p>Scanning electron microscopic image of green silver nanoparticles synthesized by reduction of aqueous AgNO<sub>3</sub> ions using aqueous extract of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic>.</p><p><bold>Abbreviations:</bold> HV, high voltage; WD, working distance; mag, magnification; ETD, Everhart–Thornley detector.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig3"></graphic></fig><fig id="f4-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 4</label><caption><p>Energy-dispersive X-ray spectrum of green silver nanoparticles.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig4"></graphic></fig><fig id="f5-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 5</label><caption><p>Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectrum of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles along with the plant extract of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic> (GS).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig5"></graphic></fig><fig id="f6-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 6</label><caption><p>X-ray diffraction spectrum of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig6"></graphic></fig><fig id="f7-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 7</label><caption><p>Anticancer activity of the green-synthesized silver nanoparticles.</p><p><bold>Abbreviation:</bold> GS, <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic>.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig7"></graphic></fig><fig id="f8-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Figure 8</label><caption><p>Inverted microscopic image of HT29 (<bold>A</bold>) control cells, (<bold>B</bold>) <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic>-treated (85 μg/mL), (<bold>C</bold>) silver nanoparticle-treated (83 μg/mL), and (<bold>D</bold>) silver nanoparticle-treated (85 μg/mL) cells.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ijn-10-031Fig8"></graphic></fig><table-wrap id="t1-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p>Phytochemical screening of leaf extract of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Compound</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Aqueous extract</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alkaloids</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Triterpenoids</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Glycosides</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">−</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Saponins</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tannins phenols</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Flavonoids</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Steroids</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">+</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn1-ijn-10-031"><p><bold>Notes:</bold> +, present; −, absent.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t2-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p>Estimation of phytochemical compounds of leaf extract of <italic>Gymnema sylvestre</italic></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Bioactive compounds</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">μg/g</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total antioxidant<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3-ijn-10-031">a</xref></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.13±0.04</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Flavonoids<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4-ijn-10-031">b</xref></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">125.62±26.84</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tannin<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5-ijn-10-031">c</xref></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">111.53±15.13</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total phenol content<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn6-ijn-10-031">d</xref></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">285.23±1.11</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Free radical scavenging<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn6-ijn-10-031">d</xref></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">52.14±0.32</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn2-ijn-10-031"><p><bold>Notes:</bold> All the values given are means of triplicates. Data presented as the mean ± standard deviation.</p></fn><fn id="tfn3-ijn-10-031"><label>a</label><p>Gallic acid equivalent.</p></fn><fn id="tfn4-ijn-10-031"><label>b</label><p>Tannic acid equivalent.</p></fn><fn id="tfn5-ijn-10-031"><label>c</label><p>Quercetin equivalent.</p></fn><fn id="tfn6-ijn-10-031"><label>d</label><p>Catechin equivalent.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap id="t3-ijn-10-031" position="float"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p>Comparative chart of the characterization of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using various plant extracts</p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Plant name</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">UV–vis peak (nm)</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Color change</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shape</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Size (nm)</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Reaction time</th><th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Camellia sinensis</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">436</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to light to dark brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4.06</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Loo et al<xref rid="b57-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">57</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Dioscorea bulbifera</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">450</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Intense brown coloration</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nano-triangle</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8–20</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ghosh et al<xref rid="b58-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">58</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Pulicaria glutinosa</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">427</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Light yellow to dark brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40–60</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Khan et al<xref rid="b59-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">59</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Curcuma longa</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">415</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to golden yellow</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">3.66–8.94</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Shameli et al<xref rid="b60-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">60</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Chrysanthemum morifolium</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">430</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to yellow brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20–50</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">He et al<xref rid="b61-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">61</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Rhinacanthus nasutus</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">437</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to yellowish brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Irregular</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">22</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pasupuleti et al<xref rid="b62-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">62</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Chrysanthemum indicum</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">435</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to reddish brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">37.71–71.99</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arokiyaraj et al<xref rid="b63-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">63</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Chrysopogon zizanioides</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to brown color</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cubic</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">85–110</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arunachalam and Annamalai<xref rid="b46-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">46</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Memecylon umbellatum</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">440</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to brown color</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">15–20</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arunachalam et al<xref rid="b47-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">47</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Solanum torvum</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">430</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yellow to brown color</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5–50</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ramamurthy et al<xref rid="b64-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">64</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Vitex negundo L</italic>.</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">430</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yellowish brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5–47</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Prabhu et al<xref rid="b65-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">65</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Aloe vera</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">430</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yellow, golden brown, and brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">20 min</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zhang et al<xref rid="b66-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">66</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Ixora coccinea</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">430</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">13–57</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Karuppiah and Rajmohan<xref rid="b67-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">67</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Adhatoda vasica</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">421</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Blackish brown colored</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">113–633</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nazeruddin et al<xref rid="b68-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">68</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Boerhaavia diffusa</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">410</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">25</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vijay Kumar et al<xref rid="b69-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">69</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Prosopis juliflora</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cubic</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">11–19</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 min</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Raja et al<xref rid="b70-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">70</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Catharanthus roseus</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">410</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to brown yellow</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">35–55</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">60 min</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ponarulselvam et al<xref rid="b71-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Moringa oleifera</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Yellow to reddish brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Spherical and pentagonal</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">40</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">16 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vasanth et al<xref rid="b48-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">48</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Morinda citrifolia</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">413</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Light yellow to brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oval</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">32–55</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">12 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Suman et al<xref rid="b72-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">72</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Artemisia nilagirica</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Clear to yellowish brown</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Square</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">70–90</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">–</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vijay Kumar et al<xref rid="b73-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">73</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Indigofera aspalathoides</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">420</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ccolorless to yellow</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Square</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">45–69</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">8 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arunachalam et al<xref rid="b50-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">50</xref></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>Saraca asoca</italic></td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">424</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorless to brownish gray</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Irregular</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">87–102</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 h</td><td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">Meenakumari et al<xref rid="b74-ijn-10-031" ref-type="bibr">74</xref></td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="tfn7-ijn-10-031"><p><bold>Abbreviations:</bold> h, hours; min, minutes; UV, ultraviolet; vis, visible spectrum.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc><affiliations><list><country><li>Inde</li><li>États-Unis</li></country><region><li>District de Columbia</li></region><settlement><li>Washington (district de Columbia)</li></settlement></list><tree><country name="Inde"><noRegion><name sortKey="Arunachalam, Kantha Deivi" sort="Arunachalam, Kantha Deivi" uniqKey="Arunachalam K" first="Kantha Deivi" last="Arunachalam">Kantha Deivi Arunachalam</name></noRegion><name sortKey="Annamalai, Sathesh Kumar" sort="Annamalai, Sathesh Kumar" uniqKey="Annamalai S" first="Sathesh Kumar" last="Annamalai">Sathesh Kumar Annamalai</name><name sortKey="Arun, Lilly Baptista" sort="Arun, Lilly Baptista" uniqKey="Arun L" first="Lilly Baptista" last="Arun">Lilly Baptista Arun</name></country><country name="États-Unis"><region name="District de Columbia"><name sortKey="Arunachalam, Aarrthy M" sort="Arunachalam, Aarrthy M" uniqKey="Arunachalam A" first="Aarrthy M" last="Arunachalam">Aarrthy M. 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