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<record><TEI><teiHeader><fileDesc><titleStmt><title xml:lang="en">Isolated, but transnational: the <italic>glocal</italic> nature of Waldensian ethnobotany, Western Alps, NW Italy</title><author><name sortKey="Bellia, Giada" sort="Bellia, Giada" uniqKey="Bellia G" first="Giada" last="Bellia">Giada Bellia</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Via del Pino 108, Pinerolo (Torino), I-10064 Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pieroni, Andrea" sort="Pieroni, Andrea" uniqKey="Pieroni A" first="Andrea" last="Pieroni">Andrea Pieroni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, Bra/Pollenzo, I-12060 Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PMC</idno><idno type="pmid">25948116</idno><idno type="pmc">4495842</idno><idno type="url">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4495842</idno><idno type="RBID">PMC:4495842</idno><idno type="doi">10.1186/s13002-015-0027-1</idno><date when="2015">2015</date><idno type="wicri:Area/Pmc/Corpus">000059</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Pmc" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PMC">000059</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en" level="a" type="main">Isolated, but transnational: the <italic>glocal</italic> nature of Waldensian ethnobotany, Western Alps, NW Italy</title><author><name sortKey="Bellia, Giada" sort="Bellia, Giada" uniqKey="Bellia G" first="Giada" last="Bellia">Giada Bellia</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff1">Via del Pino 108, Pinerolo (Torino), I-10064 Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Pieroni, Andrea" sort="Pieroni, Andrea" uniqKey="Pieroni A" first="Andrea" last="Pieroni">Andrea Pieroni</name><affiliation><nlm:aff id="Aff2">University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, Bra/Pollenzo, I-12060 Italy</nlm:aff></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine</title><idno type="eISSN">1746-4269</idno><imprint><date when="2015">2015</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Background</title><p>An ethnobotanical field study on the traditional uses of wild plants for food as well as medicinal and veterinary plants was conducted in four Waldensian valleys (Chisone, Germanasca, Angrogna, and Pellice) in the Western Alps, Piedmont, NW Italy. Waldensians represent a religious Protestant Christian minority that originated in France and spread around 1,170 AD to the Italian side of Western Alps, where, although persecuted for centuries, approximately 20,000 believers still survive today, increasingly mixing with their Catholic neighbours.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>Interviews with a total of 47 elderly informants, belonging to both Waldensian and Catholic religious groups, were undertaken in ten Western Alpine villages, using standard ethnobotanical methods.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>The uses of 85 wild and semi-domesticated food folk taxa, 96 medicinal folk taxa, and 45 veterinary folk taxa were recorded. Comparison of the collected data within the two religious communities shows that Waldensians had, or have retained, a more extensive ethnobotanical knowledge, and that approximately only half of the wild food and medicinal plants are known and used by both communities. Moreover, this convergence is greater for the wild food plant domain. Comparison of the collected data with ethnobotanical surveys conducted at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> Century and the 1980s in one of studied valleys (Germanasca) shows that the majority of the plants recorded in the present study are used in the same or similar ways as they were decades ago. Idiosyncratic plant uses among Waldensians included both archaic uses, such as the fern <italic>Botrychium lunaria</italic> for skin problems, as well as uses that may be the result of local adaptions of Central and Northern European customs, including <italic>Veronica allionii</italic> and <italic>V. officinalis</italic> as recreational teas and <italic>Cetraria islandica</italic> in infusions to treat coughs.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>The great resilience of plant knowledge among Waldensians may be the result of the long isolation and history of marginalisation that this group has faced during the last few centuries, although their ethnobotany present trans-national elements.</p><p>Cross-cultural and ethno-historical approaches in ethnobotany may offer crucial data for understanding the trajectory of change of plant knowledge across time and space.</p></sec></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Quave, Cl" 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">J Ethnobiol Ethnomed</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">J Ethnobiol Ethnomed</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">1746-4269</issn><publisher><publisher-name>BioMed Central</publisher-name><publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">25948116</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">4495842</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">27</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s13002-015-0027-1</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Isolated, but transnational: the <italic>glocal</italic> nature of Waldensian ethnobotany, Western Alps, NW Italy</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bellia</surname><given-names>Giada</given-names></name><address><email>giada.bellia@gmail.com</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff1"></xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name><surname>Pieroni</surname><given-names>Andrea</given-names></name><address><email>a.pieroni@unisg.it</email></address><xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff2"></xref></contrib><aff id="Aff1"><label></label>Via del Pino 108, Pinerolo (Torino), I-10064 Italy</aff><aff id="Aff2"><label></label>University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, Bra/Pollenzo, I-12060 Italy</aff></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>7</day><month>5</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="pmc-release"><day>7</day><month>5</month><year>2015</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2015</year></pub-date><volume>11</volume><elocation-id>37</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>24</day><month>3</month><year>2015</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>26</day><month>4</month><year>2015</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>© Bellia and Pieroni. 2015</copyright-statement><license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0</ext-link>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/</ext-link>) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.</license-p></license></permissions><abstract id="Abs1"><sec><title>Background</title><p>An ethnobotanical field study on the traditional uses of wild plants for food as well as medicinal and veterinary plants was conducted in four Waldensian valleys (Chisone, Germanasca, Angrogna, and Pellice) in the Western Alps, Piedmont, NW Italy. Waldensians represent a religious Protestant Christian minority that originated in France and spread around 1,170 AD to the Italian side of Western Alps, where, although persecuted for centuries, approximately 20,000 believers still survive today, increasingly mixing with their Catholic neighbours.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>Interviews with a total of 47 elderly informants, belonging to both Waldensian and Catholic religious groups, were undertaken in ten Western Alpine villages, using standard ethnobotanical methods.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>The uses of 85 wild and semi-domesticated food folk taxa, 96 medicinal folk taxa, and 45 veterinary folk taxa were recorded. Comparison of the collected data within the two religious communities shows that Waldensians had, or have retained, a more extensive ethnobotanical knowledge, and that approximately only half of the wild food and medicinal plants are known and used by both communities. Moreover, this convergence is greater for the wild food plant domain. Comparison of the collected data with ethnobotanical surveys conducted at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> Century and the 1980s in one of studied valleys (Germanasca) shows that the majority of the plants recorded in the present study are used in the same or similar ways as they were decades ago. Idiosyncratic plant uses among Waldensians included both archaic uses, such as the fern <italic>Botrychium lunaria</italic> for skin problems, as well as uses that may be the result of local adaptions of Central and Northern European customs, including <italic>Veronica allionii</italic> and <italic>V. officinalis</italic> as recreational teas and <italic>Cetraria islandica</italic> in infusions to treat coughs.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>The great resilience of plant knowledge among Waldensians may be the result of the long isolation and history of marginalisation that this group has faced during the last few centuries, although their ethnobotany present trans-national elements.</p><p>Cross-cultural and ethno-historical approaches in ethnobotany may offer crucial data for understanding the trajectory of change of plant knowledge across time and space.</p></sec></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><title>Keywords</title><kwd>Ethnobotany</kwd><kwd>Wild food plants</kwd><kwd>Medicinal plants</kwd><kwd>Alps</kwd><kwd>Italy</kwd></kwd-group><custom-meta-group><custom-meta><meta-name>issue-copyright-statement</meta-name><meta-value>© The Author(s) 2015</meta-value></custom-meta></custom-meta-group></article-meta></front><body><sec id="Sec1" sec-type="introduction"><title>Introduction</title><p>Ethnobotanical studies of minority and diasporic groups are of crucial interest in contemporary ethnobiology to help identify those cultural and/or social factors which affect the perceptions and uses of plants and to understand how traditional plant knowledge evolves [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR8">8</xref>].</p><p>Moreover, diverse analyses conducted in Europe during the last decade have pointed out that a broad range of factors influence the resilience of ethnobotanical knowledge and are able to slow or accelerate its erosion, including environmental changes, internal (urbanisation) and external migrations, self-perception and that of others’ identities, language, religion, as well as economic or political externalities [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>].</p><p>On the other hand, the Alps have been shown to still represent an important reservoir of local, folk plant knowledge, both in touristic [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR18">18</xref>] and especially in “peripheral” valleys [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">22</xref>], which have been less affected by the mass tourism industry. </p><p>Along these theoretical trajectories, our ethnobotanical research in recent years has focused on a number of linguistic “isles” and cultural boundaries in mountainous areas of Italy and the Balkans; especially in the latter cultural region, we have also observed the effect that religious affiliation has on the vertical transmission of folk plant knowledge, as it remarkably shapes kinship relations within multi-lingual and multi-religion communities [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">23</xref>].</p><p>In order to further assess the role that religion plays in shaping folk plant knowledge, we decided to investigate the local ethnobotany of the Waldensian community and that of their Catholic neighbours in the Western Alps, NW Italy. Waldensians represent a religious Christian (and later Protestant Christian) minority that originated in France during the 12<sup>th</sup> Century which spread around 1,170 AD to the Italian side of the Cottian (Western) Alps. Harassed for centuries, Waldensians went through a long and dramatic history of persecutions, migrations and relocations, and, despite the isolation and marginalisation of their valleys, they built important ties to Protestant countries, notably England, the Netherlands, and Switzerland [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR24">24</xref>].</p><p>Nowadays, approximately 20,000 believers (Provençal/Occitan, Piedmontese and standard Italian speaking) still survive in these valleys, increasingly mixing with their Catholic neighbours.</p><p>The specific aims of this study were:<list list-type="order"><list-item><p>to record the local names and specific uses of wild food plants, as well as wild and non-wild plants for medicinal and veterinary practices in four Waldensians valleys;</p></list-item><list-item><p>to compare the ethnobotany of members belonging to the two faiths (Waldensians and Catholics); and</p></list-item><list-item><p>to diachronically compare the current data with those from the historical North Italian ethnobotanical data.</p></list-item></list></p></sec><sec id="Sec2" sec-type="methods"><title>Methods</title><sec id="Sec3"><title>Selected sites</title><p>Figure <xref rid="Fig1" ref-type="fig">1</xref> shows the location of the study sites, which were represented by four Waldensian valleys (Chisone, Germanasca, Angrogna, and Pellice) located in the Western Alps, Piedmont, NW Italy.<fig id="Fig1"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><p>Location of the four considered Waldensian valleys within the linguistic map of Piedmont, NW Italy.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="13002_2015_27_Fig1_HTML" id="MO1"></graphic></fig></p><p>The valleys are characterized by chestnut (<italic>Castanea sativa</italic> Mill.), beech (<italic>Fagus sylvatica</italic> L.), and larch (<italic>Larix decidua</italic> Mill.) forests, with some Scots pine (<italic>Pinus sylvatica</italic> L.); the climate is alpine, with relevant annual precipitations (1000–2000 mm/year).</p><p>In particular, the following villages were visited: Fenestrelle (1,138 m.a.s.l.), Mentoulles (1,046 m.a.s.l.), Villaretto (986 m.a.s.l.), Pomaretto (619 m.a.s.l.), Campo La Salza (1,140 m.a.s.l.), Massello (1,187 m.a.s.l.), San Martino (1,063 m.a.s.l.), Villasecca (832 m.a.s.l.), Angrogna (582 m.a.s.l.), and Bobbio Pelice (762 m.a.s.l.).</p><p>All villages officially report a few hundred inhabitants (normally 300–500), but the actual figures are largely overestimated, as a significant portion of the current resident populations lives in the lowland Piedmontese centres and Turin and comes back to the villages only during the summer or on the weekends.</p><p>The local economy, since a few decades, is no longer based on agro-pastoral activities, and the elderly inhabitants live off of their pensions and in their free time manage some home-gardens and/or small-scale agricultural activities. Young and mid generations work instead in the main lowlands centres and in Turin.</p><p>Mass tourism is absent, although some eco-touristic initiatives have been growing in recent years.</p><p>The original Waldensian inhabitants have increasingly mixed with their Catholic neighbours in the last few decades, and in most cases intermarriage leads to a family’s change of faith (from Waldensian to Catholic).</p><p>Nowadays the language spoken within the domestic arena is increasingly a mixture of the original Provençal/Occitan language with the Piedmontese variety of Italian. All inhabitants also speak standard Italian.</p></sec><sec id="Sec4"><title>Field study</title><p>In the years 2010–2014, forty-seven elderly informants (nineteen Catholics and twenty-eight Waldensians, aged between 58 and 78 years) were selected, among those locals who could be identified as Traditional Knowledge holders (normally elderly small-scale farmers and shepherds), employing snowball sampling techniques. These individuals then were interviewed after Prior Informed Consent was verbally obtained.</p><p>The focus of the interviews, which were conducted in standard Italian, was the folk knowledge (name and use) of wild food plants and wild and non-wild medicinal and veterinary plants.</p><p>The Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR25">25</xref>] was strictly followed.</p><p>The wild plant species mentioned by the informants were collected, when available, identified according to Flora d’Italia [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR26">26</xref>], and finally stored at the Herbarium of the University of Gastronomic Sciences.</p><p>Plant family assignments follow the current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group designations [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref>].</p><p>The reported folk plant names were transcribed using the rules of the Provençal/Occitan and standard Italian languages.</p></sec><sec id="Sec5"><title>Data analysis</title><p>We compared the data gathered among local Waldensians with those collected among Catholics in the same study sites.</p><p>Moreover, we compared our findings with those observed in two ethnobotanical field studies conducted in the same areas (Val Germanasca) at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> Century and in the 1980s [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">30</xref>]. In particular, the first work represents one of the very first ethnobotanical studies in Italy as well as the whole of Europe, which was conducted by a Waldensian botanist working as a secondary school teacher, who died from an infectious disease in Uruguay, where he immigrated one year after the publication of his investigation [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR31">31</xref>].</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec6" sec-type="results"><title>Results and discussion</title><sec id="Sec7"><title>Wild food plants</title><p>Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref> shows the recorded uses of the wild food and semi-domesticated plant taxa.<table-wrap id="Tab1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><p><bold>Local wild or semi-domesticated food plant uses recorded in the studied area</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>Botanical taxon/family and voucher specimen code</bold></th><th><bold>Recorded local names</bold></th><th><bold>Plant part(s)</bold></th><th><bold>Local culinary use(s)</bold></th><th><bold>Wal</bold></th><th><bold>Cat</bold></th><th><bold>Citations</bold></th><th><bold>Notes</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Achillea erba-rotta</italic> All. Asteraceae UNISGVALACH</td><td>Routto Ruta di montagna</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Home-made liqueurs</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Achillea millefolium</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVGB025</td><td>Primmoflour</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Alchemilla xanthochlora</italic>Rothm. Rosacea UNISGVGB030</td><td></td><td>Leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Allium schoenoprasum</italic> L. Amaryllidaceae UNISGVALALL</td><td>Aiet</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Seasoning (salads)</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Allium ursinum</italic> L. Amaryllidaceae UNISGVALALU</td><td></td><td>Leaves</td><td>Ingredients for soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Amelanchier ovalis</italic> Medik. Rosaceae</td><td>Amarenchie</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Eaten raw</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Angelica sylvestris</italic> L. Apiaceae UNISGVGB002</td><td>Angelica</td><td>Roots</td><td>Home-made liqueurs</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Anthriscus sylvestris</italic> (L.) Hoffm. Apiaceae UNISGVALANT</td><td>Chafoulhét</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Salads</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</italic> (L.) Spreng. Ericaceae UNISGVALARC</td><td>Pan dë vouëlp Pinmerlés</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Arctium lappa</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVGB034</td><td>Grattëquioùe</td><td>Very young leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Artemisia genipi</italic> Weber ex. Stechm., <italic>A.glacialis</italic> L., <italic>A. umbelliformis</italic> Lam<italic>.</italic> Asteraceae UNISGVALAGE UNISGVALAGL UNISGVALARU</td><td>Genepì Gënëpi fumél (<italic>A. umbelliformis</italic>)Gënëpi macle (<italic>A.genipi</italic>)</td><td>Flowering tops</td><td>Home-made liqueurs</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Artemisia vulgaris</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVGB038</td><td>Arsemizë Eisente Ërsëmizo</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Seasoning soups or omelettes</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Aruncus dioicus</italic> (W.)F. Rosaceae UNISGVGB040</td><td>Glaudia</td><td>Shoots</td><td>Boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Asparagus tenuifolius</italic> Lam. Asparagaceae UNISGVALASP</td><td>Aspèrge selvagge</td><td>Shoots</td><td>Boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Bellis perennis</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL007</td><td>Magritin Margaritin</td><td>Leaves and flowers</td><td>Salads, soups, omelettes, risotto</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Berberis vulgaris</italic> L. Berberidaceae UNISGVALBER</td><td>Pittou</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Beta vulgaris</italic> L. Amaranthaceae</td><td>Bléo</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Cooked</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Borago officinalis</italic> L. Boraginaceae UNISGWAL013</td><td>Bouràes Bourai Burài</td><td>Leaves and flowers</td><td>Soups, salads, omelettes</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Campanula rapunculus</italic> L. Campanulaceae UNIGVALCAM</td><td>Rampoun</td><td>Leaves and roots</td><td>Salads</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Capsella bursa- pastoris</italic> (L.) Medik. Brassicaceae UNISGVALCAP</td><td></td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Omelettes</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Carlina acaulis</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVALCAR</td><td>Chardouso</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Macerated in olive oil; the resulting oil used as seasoning</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Carum carvi</italic> L. Apiaceae UNISGVALCAU</td><td>Chiréi Cummel</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Seasoning, home-made liqueurs</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Centaurea scabiosa</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVALCEN</td><td></td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Cerinthe</italic> sp. (?) Boraginaceae</td><td>Anhaoù grò</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Boiled</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Chenopodium album</italic> L. Amaranthaceae UNISGVALCHE</td><td>Sënicle</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Soups, boiled, omelettes</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Chenopodium bonus-henricus</italic> L. Amaranthaceae UNISGWAL017</td><td>Orla Parch</td><td>Leaves </td><td>Soups, omelettes, boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Cichorium intybus</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVALCIC</td><td>Sicorio</td><td>Young leaves Roots</td><td>Salads Roasted and grounds as coffee substitute</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Corylus avellana</italic> L. Betulaceae UNISGVALCOR</td><td></td><td>Seeds</td><td>Consumed raw</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Daucus carota</italic> L. Apiaceae UNISGVALDAU</td><td>Carotto</td><td>Roots</td><td>Salads</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Dryas octopetala</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGVALDRY</td><td></td><td>Leaves and flowers</td><td>Cosumed raw as a snack</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Fragaria vesca</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGWAL036</td><td>Maiùssa</td><td>Leaves Fruits</td><td>Soups, salads Jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Gentiana acaulis</italic> L. Gentianaceae UNISGVGB027</td><td>Braio d’cucuc Pirulet</td><td>Roots, flowers</td><td>Home-made liqueurs</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Gentiana lutea</italic> L. Gentianaceae UNISVALGEN</td><td>Argensiana Gënsano</td><td>Roots</td><td>Home-made liqueurs (or wine macerates)</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Humulus lupulus</italic> L. Cannabaceae UNISGWAL015</td><td>Lüvërtin Luvertìn</td><td>Shoots</td><td>Omelettes, boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Juniperus communis</italic> L. Cupressaceae UNISVALJUN</td><td>Gënébbre</td><td>Galbules</td><td>Seasoning</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Lapsana communis</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVALLAP</td><td>Jalino graso</td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Soups, omelettes, boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Laurus nobilis</italic> L. Lauraceae UNISGVALLAU</td><td>Loriè</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Seasoning</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Leontodon hispidus</italic> L. (?) (Asteraceae)</td><td>Plissa</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Salads, soups</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Leontopodium nivale</italic> (Ten.) Huet ex Hand.-Mazz. Asteraceae UNISGVALLEO</td><td>Stela alpina</td><td>Flowering tops</td><td>Home-made liqueurs</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Lonicera caerulea</italic> L. Caprifoliaceae UNISGVALLON</td><td>Èrza d’loup</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Eaten raw as a snack</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Malva sylvestris</italic> L. Malvaceae UNISGVAMAL</td><td>Màevë Malvo</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Mentha longifolia</italic> (L.) L. Lamiaceae UNISGVALMEN</td><td>Mëntatre</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Seasoning (esp. soups and omelettes)</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Nasturtium officinale</italic> R.Br. Brassicaceae UNISGVALNAS</td><td>Creisoun</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Salads</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Origanum vulgare</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGVALORI</td><td>Origano</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Seasoning</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Oxalis acetosella</italic> L. Oxalidaceae UNISGVALOXA</td><td>Èrbo dâ cucuc Pan d’ûzèl</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Salads</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Parietaria officinalis</italic> L.Urticaceae UNISGVGB007</td><td>Pan-chaoudét</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pedicularis foliosa</italic> L. Orobanchaceae UNISVALPED</td><td></td><td>Flowers</td><td>Sucked as a snack (by children)</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Persicaria bistorta</italic> L. Polygonaceae UNISGVALPER</td><td>Albubuine Arparô Ërparâ</td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pinus cembra</italic> L. Pinaceae UNISGVALPCE</td><td>Èlvou</td><td>Seeds</td><td>Consumed raw</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pinus sylvestris</italic> L. Pinaceae UNISGVALPSY</td><td>Pin</td><td>Seeds</td><td>Consumed raw</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Plantago major</italic> L. Plantaginaceae UNISGVGB021</td><td>Plantanh Plantònh</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Physalis alkekengi</italic> L. Solanaceae UNISGWAL040</td><td>Erba chiocca Fiacch Puvron selvaj</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Phyteuma spicatum</italic> L. Campanulaceae UNISGWAL043</td><td>Iucca</td><td>Young leaves and shoots</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Polypodium vulgare</italic> L. Polypodiaceae UNISGVGB003</td><td>Ërgalisio Rizouzèttë</td><td>Roots</td><td>Consumed raw as a snack and as a seasoning for home-made beverages</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Portulaca oleracea</italic> L. Portulacaceae UNISGVALPOR</td><td>Pouslano</td><td>Young leaves (before flowering)</td><td>Salads</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Primula helatior</italic> (L.) Hill, <italic>P. veris</italic> L., <italic>P. vulgaris</italic> Huds. Primulaceae UNISGVALPRE UNISGVALPVEUNISGVALPVU</td><td>Coucouc Pimpette Pimpinéllo</td><td>Young leaves and flowers</td><td>Salads, soups, omelettes</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Prunus avium</italic> (L.) L. Rosaceae UNISGVALPRA</td><td>Sireizie</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Consumed raw or in jams</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Prunus brigantina</italic> Vill. Rosaceae UNISGVALPRB</td><td>Marmouti</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Consumed raw or in jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Prunus spinosa</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGVALPRS</td><td>Agrenié Bousou niër</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Ribes alpinum</italic> L. Grossulariaceae UNISGWAL023</td><td>Uopastrìe</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Consumed raw or in jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Ribes uva-crispa</italic> L. Grossulariaceae UNISGVALRUC</td><td>Groouzèlla</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Consumed raw or in jams</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Robinia pseudoacacia</italic> L. Fabaceae UNISGVALROB</td><td>Gazhillo</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Deep-fried (in batter)</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rosa canina</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGVGB018</td><td>Agoulensië Bosou</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rubus ulmifolius</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGWAL038</td><td>Rounzo</td><td>Young leaves Fruits</td><td>Soups Jams</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rubus idaeus</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGWAL037</td><td>Ampolen Ampoulie</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams, syrups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rumex acetosa</italic> L. Polygonaceae UNISGVGB011</td><td>Aseuccla Asuitta di pra Isìgula Situla</td><td>Stems Leaves</td><td>Consumed raw as a snack (stems); salads, soups, omelettes, boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rumex alpinus</italic> L. Polygonaceae</td><td>Lapòs Lavasa Rabarbaro selvatico</td><td>Stem Leaves</td><td>Jams Soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Salvia pratensis</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGVGB033</td><td>Bounom</td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Sambucus nigra</italic> L. and <italic>S. racemosa</italic> L. Adoxaceae UNISGWAL016 <italic>(S. nigra)</italic></td><td>Sèuc, Seuic</td><td>Flowers Fruits</td><td>Deep fried (in batter) or seasoning home-made beverages Jams</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Silene vulgaris</italic> (Moench.) Garcke Caryophyllaceae UNISGVGB20</td><td>Chersinet Cresinet Eicloupèt</td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Soups, omelettes, boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tanacetum vulgare</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL009</td><td>Archebüse Tanaìa Tanaìo</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Seasoning soups (esp. a local bread-based soup [<italic>suppa barbetta</italic>]), home-made liqueurs, omelettes</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Taraxacum officinale</italic> (L.) Weber Asteraceae UNISGWAL010</td><td>Girasole Mourpoursin</td><td>Leaves Roots Flower heads</td><td>Salads, soups Roasted and grinded as a substitute of coffee Pickled in brine and used as flavouring</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Thymus serpyllum</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGWAL029</td><td>Serpoul</td><td>Flowers and leaves</td><td>Seasoning (also for cheese and a local bread-based soup [<italic>suppa barbetta</italic>]), home-made liquors</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tragopogon pratensis</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL011</td><td>Barbabouc</td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Soups, omelettes, boiled</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Trifolium</italic> spp. Fabaceae</td><td>Fioun</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Deep fried (in batter)</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tussilago farfara</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVALTUS</td><td>Pimpetta Ounglëtto</td><td>Young leaves</td><td>Salads</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Urtica dioica</italic> L. Urticaceae UNISGWAL041</td><td>Urtìa Urtìo Ürtia</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Soups, omelettes, risotto</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Vaccinium myrtillus</italic> L. Ericaceae UNISGVALVAM</td><td>Ërzaìe Èidra</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams, syrups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Vaccinium vitis-idaea</italic> L. Ericaceae UNISGVALVAV</td><td>Panféino</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Jams</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Valerianella locusta</italic> (L.) Laterr. Caprifoliaceae UNISGVALVAL</td><td>Saladét</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Salads</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Veronica allionii</italic> Vill. Plantaginaceae UNISGVALVEA</td><td>Èrbë d’tè GiaspertereTé d’mountannho</td><td>Leaves and flowers</td><td>Recreational tea</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Veronica officinalis</italic> L. Plantaginaceae UNISGVALVEO</td><td>Èrbë d’tè Tè svizzero</td><td>Leaves and flowers</td><td>Recreational tea</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viburnum lantana</italic> L. Adoxaceae UNISGVALVIB</td><td>Tatoulie</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Consumed raw</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viola tricolor</italic> L. Violaceae UNISGVGB005</td><td>Violette Viooulëtìn Vioulëtto blancho</td><td>Leaves and flowers</td><td>Salads, soups</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Unidentified taxon</italic></td><td>Sparsi</td><td>Leaves and flowers</td><td>Salads, soups, omelettes</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>(?) identification only via plant and habitat descriptions and folk names.</p><p>Wal: use recorded among Waldensians; Cat: use recorded among Catholics.</p><p>Notes: C: current use; P: past use.</p><p>Citations: *quoted by 10% of the informants or less; **quoted by 11-39% of the informants; ***quoted by 40% of the informants or more.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>The collection of the young aerial parts of the following wild vegetables is still common in the study area: <italic>Borago officinalis</italic>, <italic>Primula</italic> spp., <italic>Nasturtium officinale, Lapsana communis, Chenopodium bonus-henricus, Rumex acetosa, Tragopogon pratensis, Urtica dioica, Silene vulgaris, Humulus lupulus</italic>, and <italic>Taraxacum officinale.</italic></p><p>The above confirms what we already know about wild food plant consumption in Italy and in particular NW Italy, where the very common consumption of the young shoots of <italic>Humulus lupulus</italic> and <italic>Tragopogon pratensis</italic> can be considered a cultural marker of Piedmontese cuisine. While all these data confirm the observations reported nearly one century ago by Giovanni Mattirolo in his review of the wild plants of Piedmont [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR32">32</xref>], it appears that the practice of gathering and consuming the leaves/young shoots of <italic>Valerianella locusta, Phyteuma</italic> spp., <italic>Persicaria bistorta</italic>, and <italic>Aruncus dioicus</italic> continued only until the recent past and/or is less common today. The latter three species (in soups or boiled) in particular represent an important part of the slowly disappearing North Italian Alpine culinary “traditions” [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR33">33</xref>].</p><p>Among the wild plants exploited for seasoning, the use of <italic>Carum carvi, Thymus serpyllum, Juniperus communis</italic>, and <italic>Tanacetum vulgare</italic> is predominant. In particular, the common use of the leaves of the last species (Figure <xref rid="Fig2" ref-type="fig">2</xref>) – which has been widely reported not only in the Piedmont region but also recently in Occitan/Provençal and Alpine Ligurian areas [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR35">35</xref>] – as a crucial seasoning ingredient in omelettes, soups, and a home-made liqueur called <italic>arquebuse</italic> may be better investigated from a historical perspective. In fact, this species has a long history of folk use in Britain, especially in omelettes consumed during the fish-based diet of Lent [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR36">36</xref>], and Waldensians, even in the poorest villages, have maintained for many centuries intense cultural ties to Britain, due to the historical and theological proximity between the Protestant/Anglican and Waldensian faiths [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR23">23</xref>].<fig id="Fig2"><label>Figure 2</label><caption><p>Dried aerial parts and flowers of <italic>Tanacetum vulgare.</italic></p></caption><graphic xlink:href="13002_2015_27_Fig2_HTML" id="MO2"></graphic></fig></p><p>As in other areas of NW Italy ([<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>], and references therein), wild <italic>Artemisia genipi, A. glacialis,</italic> and <italic>A. umbelliformis</italic> flowering tops (<italic>genepì</italic>), <italic>Gentiana acaulis</italic> flowers (Figure <xref rid="Fig3" ref-type="fig">3</xref>) and roots, and <italic>G. lutea</italic> roots are commonly gathered and used for making home-made hydro-alcoholic macerates/digestive liqueurs.<fig id="Fig3"><label>Figure 3</label><caption><p>Gentiana acaulis.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="13002_2015_27_Fig3_HTML" id="MO3"></graphic></fig></p><p>Among wild fruits, the gathering of the fruits/pseudo-fruits of <italic>Rosa canina, Sambucus nigra</italic> (and rarely <italic>S. racemosa</italic>), and <italic>Vaccinium myrtillus</italic> is still commonly practiced.</p><p>Finally, the frequent use of the aerial parts of <italic>Veronica</italic> species (esp. the local <italic>Veronica allionii</italic>) as recreational teas in the study area, which has also been recorded in adjacent valleys [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>], could be the result of cultural “contamination” from British and Northern/Central European customs. Waldensians, for example, have introduced in their valleys, and continue to practice today, the English custom of taking afternoon tea, which is extremely uncommon among the autochthonous Catholics in the study area as well as other areas of Italy.</p><p>In place of exotic and expensive colonial teas, the poor villagers may have opted for a “cheap”, local substitute, which may explain the use of the aerial parts of <italic>Veronica</italic> spp. even today. This tea – sometimes locally and more recently called “Occitan tea” - became in the last decade in the study area and also among the entire Occitan/Provençal community living in the Western Italian Alps an important cultural marker and seems to represent there one of the distinctive signs of the local identity.</p><p>On the other hand, the use of <italic>Veronica officinalis</italic> tea was very spread in France, Switzerland, and Northern Europe in the 19<sup>th</sup> Century [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR37">37</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="Sec8"><title>Medicinal plants</title><p>Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref> reports the locally recorded medicinal plant uses.<table-wrap id="Tab2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><p><bold>Local medicinal plant uses recorded in the studied area</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>Botanical taxon/ family and voucher specimen code #</bold></th><th><bold>Local names</bold></th><th><bold>Status</bold></th><th><bold>Plant parts</bold></th><th><bold>Preparation and administration</bold></th><th><bold>Folk medical use(s) or treated disease(s)</bold></th><th><bold>Wal</bold></th><th><bold>Cat</bold></th><th><bold>Citations</bold></th><th><bold>Notes</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Abies alba</italic> Mill. Pinaceae UNISGVALABA</td><td>Bigiun Sap Sòp blanc</td><td>W</td><td>Buds Resin</td><td>Infusion, syrup Topical application</td><td>Cough Skin infections, arthritis, bruises</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Acer pseudoplatanus</italic> L. Sapindaceae UNISGVALACE</td><td>Plai Plaie</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Cough, flu</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Achillea erba-rotta</italic> All. Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion, liquor</td><td>Digestive, fever</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Alchemilla xanthochlora</italic> Rothm. Rosaceae</td><td></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion Topical application</td><td>Anti-inflammatory Dysmenorrhea</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Allium ampeloprasum</italic> L. Amaryllidaceae</td><td>Pourëtto</td><td>C</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>To decrease the milk secretion</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Allium sativum</italic> L. Amaryllidaceae</td><td>Alh</td><td>C</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Topical application Fumigations Externally applied to cloths</td><td>Corns Cough Worms</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Aloysia citriodora</italic> Palau Verbenaceae</td><td>Limonella</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Dysmenorrhea</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Arctium lappa</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVGB034</td><td>Grattëquioùe</td><td>W</td><td>Roots Flowers</td><td>Decoction Infusion</td><td>Respiratory infections, fever, “blood thinner”</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</italic> (L.) Spreng. Ericaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Diuretic and inflammations of the urinary tract</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Arnica montana</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL003</td><td>Tabacas Tabaccai</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Tincture or macerate in olive oil, externally applied</td><td>Rheumatisms, arthritis muscle pains, bruises</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Artemisia absinthium</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL004</td><td>Ûsenc</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Topical application Infusion</td><td>Bruises Fever, worms, digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Artemisia genipi</italic> Weber ex. Stechm., <italic>A.glacialis</italic> L., <italic>A. umbelliformis</italic> Lam<italic>.</italic> Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Liquor, infusion</td><td>Digestive, cough</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Artemisia vulgaris</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGVGB038</td><td>Arsemizë Ërsëmizo</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion Topical application</td><td>Dysmenorrhea Bruises</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Beta vulgaris</italic> L. Amaranthaceae</td><td>Bléo</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topical application</td><td>Joint pains, acne</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Borago officinalis</italic> L. Boraginaceae UNISGWAL013</td><td>Bouràes Bourai</td><td>C</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion Topical application</td><td>Pimples Eczema, psoriasis</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Brassica oleracea</italic> L. Brassicaceae</td><td>Chôl</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topical application</td><td>Pimples, acne</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Botrychium lunaria</italic> (L.) Sw. Ophioglossaceae UNISGVALBOT</td><td>Èrbo d’l’uo</td><td>W</td><td>Ripe sporangium</td><td>Topical application Inhalation Infusion</td><td>Skin wounds Nose bleeding Internal bleeding</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Brassica rapa</italic> L. Brassicaceae</td><td>Rabbo</td><td>C</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Syrup</td><td>Cough</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Calendula officinalis</italic> L. Asteraceae</td><td>Courtëzio</td><td>C</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Dysmenorrhea, for promoting blood circulation</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Capsella bursa-pastoris</italic> (L.) Medik. Brassicaceae</td><td></td><td>W</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Topical application</td><td>Skin wounds</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Carum carvi</italic> L. Apiaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Infusion, liquor</td><td>Digestive, carminative</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Cetraria islandica</italic> L.(Ach.) Parmeliaceae UNISGVALCET</td><td>Èrbo d’la vélho Licchia Lichene Pan d’chabbre</td><td>W</td><td>Thallus</td><td>Decoction, syrup Decoction, externally applied</td><td>Cough, bronchitis</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Chelidonium majus</italic> L. Papaveraceae UNISGVGB039</td><td>Sireunnho Erbë sironnhë</td><td>W</td><td>Latex</td><td>Fresh topical applied</td><td>Warts</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Conium maculatum</italic> L. Apiaceae UNISGVALCON</td><td>Sicutto</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Abortive</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Crataegus monogyna</italic> Jacq. Rosaceae UNISGVALCRA</td><td>Prusét</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Hypertensive, venous insufficiency</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Cyanus segetum</italic> Hill. Asteraceae UNISGVGB015</td><td></td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Eyebaths</td><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Cynodon dactylon</italic> L. (Pers.) Poaceae UNISVALCYN</td><td>Gramoun</td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Diuretic</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Datura stramonium</italic> L. Solanaceae UNISGVALDAT</td><td>Èrbo dâ dërboun</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Inhalation (dried powedered leaves)</td><td>Asthma</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Equisetum arvense</italic> L. Equisetaceae UNISGWAL020</td><td>Èrbo cavalino</td><td>W</td><td>Sterile stem</td><td>Decoction Topical application</td><td>Diuretic, to prevent prostatic cancer Skin inflammations</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Erica carnea</italic> L. Ericaceae UNISGVALERI</td><td>Erica</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Urinary tract infections, diarrhea</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Euphrasia alpina</italic> Lam. Orobanchaceae UNISGVALEUP</td><td>Eufrasia</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Eyebaths</td><td>Conjunctivitis</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Fraxinus excelsior</italic> L. Oleaceae UNISGVGB022</td><td>Fraise</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Venous insufficiency, hypertension</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Fragaria vesca</italic> L. Rosaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topical application</td><td>Pimples, acne</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Gentiana acaulis</italic> L. Gentianaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Liquor, infusion</td><td>Apetizing, digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Gentiana lutea</italic> L. Gentianaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Liquor Macerated in wine</td><td>Appetizing, digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Hypericum perforatum</italic> L. Hypericaceae UNISGWAL018</td><td>Millepertuis Trafourèllo Sengian</td><td>W</td><td>Flowering aerial parts</td><td>Macerate in oil</td><td>Skin inflammations, burnes, arthritis</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Hyssopus officinalis</italic> L. Lamiaceae</td><td>Izòp</td><td>C</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Cough</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Juglans regia</italic> L. Juglandaceae</td><td>Nouvìe</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion, externally applied</td><td>Chilblains</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Juniperus communis</italic> L. Cupressaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Infusion, liquor</td><td>Digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Lamium album</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGVALLAM</td><td>Urtìo morto</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Dysmenorrhea</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Larix decidua</italic> Mill. Pinaceae UNISGVGB031</td><td>Mèlze</td><td>W</td><td>Sprouts Resin Pine cones</td><td>Infusion Topical application Syrup</td><td>Expectorant Skin inflammations (remove splinters) Respiratory infections</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Laurus nobilis</italic> L. Lauraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves Fruits</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Digestive</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Leontopodium nivale</italic> (Ten.) Huet ex Hand.-Mazz. Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Flowering tops</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Digestive</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Linum usitatissimum</italic> L. Linaceae</td><td>Lin</td><td>C</td><td>Seeds</td><td>Poultice, externally applied Baths Macerated in water</td><td>Respiratory infections Urinary infections, constipation Toothaches</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Malva sylvestris</italic> L. Malvaceae UNISGWAL031</td><td>Malvo</td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Decoctions</td><td>Urinary and genital tracts inflammations, digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Marrubium vulgare</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGVALMAR</td><td>Marëfi</td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Digestive</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Matricaria chamomilla</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL008</td><td>Caramillho</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion Infusion, externally applied in poultices Oleolites</td><td>Urinary tract infections Bronchitis Earaches</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Melissa officinalis</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGWAL026</td><td>Melissa</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Neurorelaxant</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Menta longifolia</italic> (L.) Huds. Lamiaceae</td><td>Mëntatre</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Myristica fragrans</italic> Houtt. Myristicaceae</td><td>Noce moscata</td><td>C</td><td>Seeds</td><td>Grinded and ingested with sugar</td><td>Dysmenorrhea</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Ononis spinosa</italic> L. Fabaceae</td><td>Ratabuou</td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cystitis, in the prevention of prostate cancer</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Origanum vulgare</italic> L. Lamiaceae</td><td>Oouriënt</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Digestive</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Parietaria officinalis</italic> L. Urticaceae UNISGVGB007</td><td>Pan-chaoudét</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Urinary tract infections and for prevention prostate cancer</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pelargonium zonale</italic> (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton Geraniaceae</td><td>Geranio odoroso</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topically applied (fresh)</td><td>Skin cuts, hamatomas, wounds</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pilosella officinarum</italic> Vaill. Asteraceae UNISGVGB013</td><td>Èrbo dâ runh Ourèllhë d’rattë</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topical ly applied (fresh)</td><td>Skin cuts and wounds</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pinguicola vulgaris</italic> L. Lentibulariaceae</td><td>Èrbo d’la talheuiro</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topically applied (fresh)</td><td>Skin cuts, wounds</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pinus cembra</italic> L. Pinaceae</td><td>Èlvou</td><td>W</td><td>Cones Resin</td><td>Syrup Topically applied</td><td>Expectorant Wounds</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pinus mugo</italic> Turra, <italic>P. sylvestris</italic></td><td>Pin</td><td>W</td><td>Cones, Sprouts</td><td>Syrup, Decoction</td><td>Cough, bronchitis</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>L. Pinaceae</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Plantago major</italic> L., <italic>P. lanceolata</italic> L<italic>.</italic> Plantaginaceae UNISGVGB021</td><td>Plantanh Plantònh</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion Baths Topically applied (fresh)</td><td>Urinary and genital infections To prevent prostate cancer Bruises and haematomas</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Polygonum bistorta</italic> L. Polygonaceae UNISGVGB036</td><td>Ërparà</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Diuretic</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Polypodium vulgare</italic> L. Polypodiaceae UNISGVGB003</td><td>Ërgalisio Rizouzèttë</td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cough, digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Potentilla reptans</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGVALPOT</td><td>Èrbo d’la sinquèno</td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Decoctions Baths</td><td>Urinary infections To prevent prostate cancer</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Primula helatior</italic> (L.) Hill, <italic>P. veris</italic> L., <italic>P. vulgaris</italic> Huds. Primulaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Flowers and roots</td><td>Infuson/Decoction</td><td>Diuretic, cough</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Prunus avium</italic> (L.) L.</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Stems Resin</td><td>Infusion Topically applied</td><td>Diuretic Sprains</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Prunus domestica</italic> L. Rosaceae</td><td>Dalmeizinìe</td><td>C</td><td>Resin</td><td>Topically applied</td><td>Skin cuts and sprains</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Prunus dulcis</italic> (Mill.) D.A. Webb Rosaceae</td><td>Amandoulie</td><td>C</td><td>Seeds</td><td>Fresh eaten</td><td>Galactagogue</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rhododendron ferrugineum</italic> L. Ericaceae UNISGVGB035</td><td>Brousé</td><td>W</td><td>Galls</td><td>Oleolite</td><td>Muscle pains</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rosa canina</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGVGB018</td><td>Bosou Agoulënsia</td><td>W</td><td>Fruits Flowers</td><td>Jam Decoction Infusion, in external applications on the eyes</td><td>Intestinal astringent Increase immunostimulating Eye inflammations and conjunctivitis</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rosa centifolia</italic> L. Rosaceae</td><td>Ruse</td><td>C</td><td>Petals</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Sore throat</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rosmarinus officinalis</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGWAL030</td><td>Rousmarin</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rubus ulmifolius</italic> L. Rosaceae UNISGWAL038</td><td>Rounzo</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion Topical fresh applied</td><td>Sore throat and hoarseness Acne and pimples, cicatrizing</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rumex acetosa</italic> L. Polygonaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topically applied (fresh)</td><td>Insect bites</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rumex alpinus</italic> L. Polygonaceae</td><td>Lavaso</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Cough</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Salix alba</italic> L. Salicaceae</td><td>Gourìe</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Fever</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Salvia officinalis</italic> L. Lamiaceae</td><td>Salvio</td><td>C</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Oral disinfectant and antibacterial, headaches, digestive</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Sambucus nigra</italic> L. Adoxaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Flowers Fruits</td><td>Infusion Applied (fresh) in the mouth Jam</td><td>Hypertension Tooth abscess “Blood cleanser”</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Satureja montana</italic> L. Lamiaceae</td><td>Sëréa</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Dysmenorrhea</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Sempervivum montanum</italic> L. Crassulaceae UNISGVGB029</td><td></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Topically applied (fresh)</td><td>Skin cuts and burns</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Silybum marianum</italic> (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae UNISGVALSYL</td><td>Pugn</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves Roots</td><td>Infusion Decoction</td><td>Diuretic, dysmenorrhea</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Symphytum officinale</italic> L. Boraginaceae UNISGVALSYM</td><td>Èrbo dâ panariss</td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Topicaly applied (fresh)</td><td>Muscle pains and skin infections</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tanacetum vulgare</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL006</td><td>Tanaìo</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Dysmenorrhea</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Taraxacum officinale</italic> L. Asteraceae UNISGWAL010</td><td>Girasole Mourpoursin</td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Diuretic/“blood cleasing”</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Teucrium chamaedrys</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGVGB019</td><td>Calamandréo</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Hypertension, dysmenorrhea</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Thymus serpyllum</italic> L. Lamiaceae UNISGWAL029</td><td>Sërpoul</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion Topically applied (fresh)</td><td>Digestive Insect bites</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tilia cordata</italic> Mill. Malvaceae UNISGVALTIL</td><td>Télh Tîeul</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Respiratory tract inflammations</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Trigonella caerulea</italic> (L.) Ser.</td><td rowspan="2">Thé d’hl’ort</td><td rowspan="2">C</td><td rowspan="2">Aerial parts</td><td rowspan="2">Infusion</td><td rowspan="2">Digestive</td><td rowspan="2">+</td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2">*</td><td rowspan="2">C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td>Fabaceae</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tussilago farfara</italic> L. Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Respiratory tract inflammations, fever</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Urtica dioica</italic> L. Urticaceae UNISGWAL031</td><td>Urtìo</td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Diuretic</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Verbascum thapsus</italic> L. Scrophulariaceae UNISGVALVER</td><td>Couvoùëlp</td><td>W</td><td>Inflorescences</td><td>Infusion Syrup</td><td>Respiratory tract inflammations Cough</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Verbena officinalis</italic> L. Verbenaceae UNISGWAL032</td><td>Barbéno</td><td>W</td><td>Fever</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Febrifuge</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Veronica allionii</italic> Vill. Plantaginaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Flowering aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Diuretic</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viola calcarata</italic> L. Violaceae UNISGVGB028</td><td>Vioulëtto d’mountannho</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Respiratory tract inflammations, fever</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viola tricolor</italic> L. Violaceae UNISGVGB005</td><td>Vioulëtto blanchoViooulëtin</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion Topically applied</td><td>Respiratory tract inflammations, fever, toothache</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>***</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Unidentified taxon</italic></td><td>Appia</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Topical application</td><td>Bruises</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Unidentified taxon</italic></td><td>Murtalia</td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Tea</td><td>Anti-infllammatory</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>#: see Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref> for other voucher codes.</p><p>Status: C: cultivated; SC: semi-cultivated or semi-wild; W: wild.</p><p>Wal: use recorded among Waldensians; Cat: use recorded among Catholics.</p><p>Citations: *quoted by 10% of the informants or less; **quoted by 11-39% of the informants; ***quoted by 40% of the informants or more.</p><p>Notes: C: current use; P: past use.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>The most common wild medicinal plant-based remedies, which are used externally, comprise the flowers of <italic>Arnica montana</italic>, the aerial parts of <italic>Artemisia absinthium</italic>, the resin of <italic>Abies alba</italic>, and the fresh latex of <italic>Chelidonium majus</italic>. Apart from the last species, this finding confirms the recent ethnobotanical data gathered from other Italian Alpine areas [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR17">17</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR22">22</xref>].</p><p>Among the less commonly reported species, the use of the fern <italic>Botrychium lunaria</italic> for skin problems should be further investigated, as the use of this plant was not recorded in the Italian ethnobotanical database compiled in 2004 [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR38">38</xref>], and the phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus <italic>Botrychium</italic> is largely unknown, if we exclude the recent work on its flavonoids [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR39">39</xref>].</p><p>The most frequently mentioned local herbal infusions are instead prepared with plants that are commonly used throughout Italy and Europe: <italic>Equisetum arvense, Hypericum perforatum, Parietaria officinalis, Malva sylvestris, Matriciaria chamomilla, Thymus serpyllum, Tilia cordata, Viola tricolor,</italic> and <italic>Cetraria islandica.</italic> The use of the last species is peculiar, however, as it is frequently found, in Italy, in the herbalism-based standardized phytotherapy, but not often in the local folk medical systems.</p><p>The remarkable tradition of gathering and using this wild lichen in Waldensian valleys may be, once again, the result of the historical ties that these communities retained with Central and Northern European customs.</p><p>The same lichen, gathered from the wild, is also nowadays one of the pillars of the resurgence of the traditional Waldensian cuisine, where it is sometimes used to prepare desserts in a few of the new restaurants in the area [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR40">40</xref>].</p><p>Finally, it is worth mentioning that the unsual herbal folk uses of <italic>Cetraria islandica</italic> and <italic>Botrychium lunaria</italic> find parallelisms in the Alpine Catalan ethnobotany [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR42">42</xref>], showing in this way interesting commonalities between the Catalan and Occitan ethnobotanies of the Alpine communities.</p></sec><sec id="Sec9"><title>Veterinary plants</title><p>Nearly all the plants pertaining to the veterinary domain (plants used for both feeding and for curing animals, Table <xref rid="Tab3" ref-type="table">3</xref>) were used primarily in the past, as current uses are sporadic and quotation indexes are very low.<table-wrap id="Tab3"><label>Table 3</label><caption><p><bold>Local veterinary plant uses recorded in the studied area</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>Botanical taxon/family and voucher specimen code #</bold></th><th><bold>Local name (folk taxon/generic)</bold></th><th><bold>Status</bold></th><th><bold>Plant part(s)</bold></th><th><bold>Preparation and administration</bold></th><th><bold>Folk veterinary use(s) or treated desease(s)</bold></th><th><bold>Treated animals</bold></th><th><bold>Wal</bold></th><th><bold>Cat</bold></th><th><bold>Citations</bold></th><th><bold>Notes</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Achillea erba-rotta</italic> All. Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Aconitum napellus</italic> L. Ranunculaceae</td><td>Èrbo toro</td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Eaten fresh</td><td>Abortive</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Alcea rosea</italic> L. Malvaceae</td><td>Malvone</td><td>C</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Artemisia absinthium</italic> L. Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fodder or in infusions</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA, RA</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Avena sativa</italic> L. Poaceae</td><td>Avéno</td><td>C</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fodder (fresh)</td><td>Post-partum depurative</td><td>CA</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Calendula officinalis</italic> L<italic>.</italic> Asteraceae</td><td>Courtëzio</td><td>C</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion</td><td>To facilitate pregnancy</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Cetraria islandica</italic> (L.) Ach. Parmeliaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Thallus</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Stomach disorders</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Equisetum arvense</italic> L. Equisetaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Foothbath</td><td>Infections of the paws</td><td>SH</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Euphorbia cyparissias</italic> L. Euphorbiaceae UNISGVGB009</td><td>Laitin gró’d mialàourë</td><td>W</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Fodder (dried)</td><td>Infections (esp. in the oral cavity)</td><td>CA, PO, SH</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Fagopyrum esculentum</italic> Moench. Polygonaceae</td><td>Granét</td><td>C</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>CA, PO, PI</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Festuca ovina</italic> L. Poaceae</td><td>Grasoun</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Foeniculum vulgare</italic> Mill. Apiaceae UNISGVGB012</td><td>Fënoulh</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fodder (fresh)</td><td>Galactagogue</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Fraxinus excelsior</italic> L. Oleaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh</td><td>Fodder</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Galium verum</italic> L. Rubiaceae UNISGVALGAL</td><td>Caglio</td><td>W</td><td>Flowering tops</td><td>Dried</td><td>As rennet</td><td></td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Gentiana lutea</italic> L. Gentianaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA, SH</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Heracleum sphondylium</italic> L. Apiaceae</td><td>Plaoutasino</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO, RA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Juniperus communis</italic> L. Cupressaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Fruits</td><td>Fodder</td><td>To improve the skin health (making it shiny)</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Laburnum alpinum</italic> (Mill.) Bercht. & J.Presl. Fabaceae UNISGVGB037</td><td>Albuorn</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>RA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Lamium album</italic> L. Lamiaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PI, PO, RA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Larix decidua</italic> Mill. Pinaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Resin</td><td>Topically applied</td><td>Bruises, sprains, wounds</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Linum usitatissimum</italic> L. Linaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>C</td><td>Seeds</td><td>Fodder</td><td>“Blood cleansing”</td><td>CA</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Malva sylvestris</italic> L. Malvaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Depurative during the menstrual cycle</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Marrubium vulgare</italic> L. Lamiaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Matricaria chamomilla</italic> L<italic>.</italic> Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>C</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA (calves)</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Medicago sativa</italic> L. Fabaceae</td><td>Luzèrno</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Onobrychis viciifolia</italic> Scop. Fabaceae</td><td>Jalét</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>CA</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Ononis spinosa</italic> L. Fabaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Depurative during the menstrual cycle</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Oxalis acetosella</italic> L. Oxalidaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Eaten fresh or dry</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO, RA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Parietaria officinalis</italic> L. Urticaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>C</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fresh</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>C</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Pilosella officinarum</italic> Vaill. Asteraceae UNISGVGB013</td><td>Èrbo dâ runh</td><td>W</td><td>Whole plant</td><td>Fodder</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Plantago major</italic> L.<italic>, P. lanceolata</italic> L. Plantaginaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PI</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Polyporus officinalis</italic> Fries. Poliporaceae</td><td>Panouflo</td><td>W</td><td>Fruiting body</td><td>Fodder (ground)</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>**</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Quercus petraea</italic> (Matt.) Liebl. Fagaceae</td><td>Roure</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>GO</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Secale cereale</italic> L. Poaceae</td><td>Sèel</td><td>C</td><td>Seeds→Flour</td><td>Fodder</td><td>Galactagogue</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Sedum album</italic> L. Crassulaceae</td><td>Picouloump</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Silene vulgaris</italic> (Moench) Garcke Caryophyllaceae UNISGVGB020</td><td>Eicloupèt</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO, RA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Stellaria media</italic> (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae</td><td>Pavarino</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Silybum marianum</italic> (L.) Gaertn Asteraceae</td><td>Pugn</td><td>W</td><td>Roots</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Depurative during the menstrual cycle</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tanacetum vulgare</italic> L. Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Taraxacum officinale</italic> F.H.Wigg. Asteraceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Thymus serpyllum</italic> L. Lamiaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Topically applied in the mouth</td><td>Rumination disorders, infections of the oral cavity</td><td>CA, SH</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Trifolium alpinum</italic> L. Fabaceae</td><td>Fioun</td><td>W</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>CA</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Triticum vulgare</italic> Vill. Poaceae</td><td>Froumént</td><td>C</td><td>Aerial parts</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Ulmus glabra</italic> Huds. Ulmaceae UNISGVALULM</td><td>Oùëlme</td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PI</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Urtica dioica</italic> L. Urticaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>PO</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Verbascum thapsus</italic> L. Scrophulariaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Leaves</td><td>Fresh or dried</td><td>Fodder</td><td>SH</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viola tricolor</italic> L. Violaceae</td><td>See Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref></td><td>W</td><td>Flowers</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Rumination disorders</td><td>CA</td><td>+</td><td></td><td>*</td><td>P</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>#: see Table <xref rid="Tab1" ref-type="table">1</xref> and Table <xref rid="Tab2" ref-type="table">2</xref> for other voucher codes.</p><p>Status: C: cultivated; SC: semi-cultivated or semi-wild; W: wild.</p><p>Treated animals: CA: cattle; GO: goats; PI: pigs; PO: poultry; RA: rabbits; SH: sheep.</p><p>Wal: use recorded among Waldensians; Cat: use recorded among Catholics.</p><p>Notes: C: current use; P: past use.</p><p>Citations: *quoted by 10% of the informants or less; **quoted by 11% of the informants or more.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>This suggests that the socio-economic shift local communities have faced since the 1960s, in which most inhabitants have abandoned the traditional agro-pastoral activities and animal breeding has decreased, has also produced a dramatic loss of Traditional Knowledge concerning veterinary practices.</p></sec><sec id="Sec10"><title>Waldensian versus Catholic ethnobotany: the possible role of cultural isolation from neighbours</title><p>Figure <xref rid="Fig4" ref-type="fig">4</xref> illustrates the overlap between the ethnobotany of Waldensians and that of their Catholic neighbours in the three analysed domains (folk wild plant foods, medicines, and veterinary food plants and remedies).<fig id="Fig4"><label>Figure 4</label><caption><p>Overlap between the folk plant taxa used among Waldensians and Catholics in the study area.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="13002_2015_27_Fig4_HTML" id="MO4"></graphic></fig></p><p>The comparison shows that Waldensians had, or have retained, a more extensive ethnobotanical knowledge, and that approximately only half of the recorded wild food and medicinal plants are known and used by both communities. Moreover, this convergence is more marked for the wild food plant domain.</p><p>Despite the fact that Waldensians nowadays live together with Catholics, intermarriage between the two religious communities did not exist until a few decades ago. Given the fact that vertical transmission (from grandmother to mothers and from mothers to daughters) of ethnobotanical knowledge is related to kinship networks and these are determined by religious affiliation, this factor may explain the divergence of the two ethnobotanies.</p><p>Moreover, the fact that the plant knowledge among Waldensians appears to be more extensive than among the Catholic population may be related to a less marked erosion of the traditional customs and the strong sense of identity Waldensians retain. The historical isolation of the Waldensian community, which survived for many centuries cut off from the rest of their neighbours but at the same time fostered strong ties to Central and Northern Europe, may have facilitated unique patterns of plant perception and use.</p><p>However, in the last few decades intermarriage between members of the two communities has become more common (generally bringing the new family into the Catholic faith), and this will probably further hybridize the ethnobotany of the two groups.</p><p>On the other hand, a stronger overlap of the ethnobotanies of two culturally distinct groups in the specific wild food domain has also been observed in other mountainous regions of Europe, and may be regarded as a common strategy for coping with the food security-centred struggles that marginalised Alpine populations had to face in the past [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR1">1</xref>].</p></sec><sec id="Sec11"><title>The Waldensian ethnobotany during the last century: a historical analysis</title><p>Table <xref rid="Tab4" ref-type="table">4</xref> illustrates the overlap of ethnobotanical data collected at the end of the 19<sup>th</sup> Century and in the 1980s in one of the study valleys (Germanasca Valley) [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">30</xref>] with our current data.<table-wrap id="Tab4"><label>Table 4</label><caption><p><bold>Comparison of the local plant uses recorded in the Germanasca Valley in 1900 and 1984 with those collected in the current study</bold></p></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr valign="top"><th><bold>Botanical taxon and family</bold></th><th><bold>Local uses recorded in 1900</bold><bold>[</bold><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR27">27</xref><bold>,</bold><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref><bold>]</bold></th><th><bold>Local uses recorded in 1984</bold><bold>[</bold><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">29</xref><bold>]</bold><bold>*</bold></th><th><bold>Local uses nowadays (current study)</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Allium cepa</italic> L. (Amaryllidaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Decoction of the bulbs a diuretic</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Amelanchier ovalis</italic> Medik. (Rosaceae)</td><td>Fruits consumed as a snack by boys</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Anemone hepatica</italic> L. (Ranuncolaceae)</td><td>Leaves externally applied on women breast for treating inflammations</td><td>NR</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Arctium lappa</italic> L. (Asteraceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Infusion of the dried roots, as a depurative</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Arnica montana</italic> L. (Asteraceae)</td><td></td><td>Alcoholic macerate of the flowers externally applied for treating cuts, rheumatism, and muscle pains</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Artemisia genipi</italic> Weber ex Stechm. (Asteraceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Aerial parts in infusion or alcoholic macerate (liquor) as a digestive</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Beckwithia glacialis</italic> (L.) Á. Löve & D. Löve (Ranuncolaceae)</td><td>Flowers in decoction, drunk as a diaphoretic</td><td>Decoction for treating toothaches</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Calendula officinalis</italic> L. (Asteraceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Infusion of the dried flowers as a depurative</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Campanula spicata</italic> L. (Campanulaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Fresh leaves, crashed, externally applied for treating cuts</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Cetraria islandica</italic> (L.) Ach. (Parmeliaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Decoction of the thallus as a digestive and expectorant</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Chelidonius majus</italic> L. (Papaveraceae)</td><td>Latex externally applied on warts</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Crataegus rhipidophylla</italic> Gand. (Rosaceae)</td><td>Fruits consumed</td><td>NR</td><td>≠</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Gentiana acaulis</italic> L. (Gentianaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Whole plant or roots in infusion/decoction or wine macerate as appetizing and digestive</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Hypericum perforatum</italic> L. (Hypericaceae)</td><td>Hung behind the house door, to prevent witcheries</td><td>Oil macerate of the fresh flowers as a cicatrizing</td><td>= (as in 1984)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Laburnum anagyroides</italic> Medik. (Fabaceae)</td><td>Bark decocted and externally used for treating lice in cows and calves</td><td>NR</td><td>≠</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Laricifomes officinalis</italic> (Vill.) Kotl. & Pouzar (Fomitopsidaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>The fruiting body, powdered, in infusion as a digestive</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Lathyrus sylvestris</italic> (Fabaceae)</td><td>Remedy (?) for cows when they calve</td><td>NR</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Lilium candidum</italic> L. (Liliaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Oil macerate of the fresh flowers as a cicatrizing</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Linum usitatissimum</italic> L. (Linaceae)</td><td>The seeds (in compresses?) as anti-rheumatic</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Malva sylvestris</italic> L. (Malvaceae)</td><td>Infusion of the leaves (?) as emollient, both for humans and animals</td><td>NR</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Nasturtium officinale</italic> R.Br. (Brassicaceae)</td><td>Leaves consumed raw in salads</td><td>Leaves consumed raw in salads or in soup, as a depurative</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Onobrychis viciifolia</italic> Scop. (Fabaceae)</td><td>Fodder</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Oxalis acetosella</italic> L. (Oxalidaceae)</td><td>Leaves consumed raw in salads</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Papaver rhoes</italic> L. (Papaveraceae)</td><td>Flowers in decoction, drunk for treating toothache</td><td>NR</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Parietaria officinalis</italic> L. (Urticaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Decoction of the dried aerial parts, as a diuretic and depurative</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Polygonum aviculare</italic> L. (Polygonaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Infusion of the dried aerial parts (?) as an astringent</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rosa canina</italic> L. (Rosaceae)</td><td>Flowers consumed as a snack by boys</td><td>Infusion of the flowers externally applied for treating eye inflammations</td><td>= (as in 1984)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rosa centifolia</italic> L. (Rosaceae)</td><td>Petals (not clarified how) for treating eye inflammations</td><td>NR</td><td>≠</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rubus ideaus</italic> L. (Rosaceae)</td><td>Fruits consumed; leaves as fodder</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Rubus ulmifolius</italic> Schott (Rosaceae)</td><td>Fruits consumed</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Sorbus aria</italic> (L.) Crantz (Rosaceae)</td><td>Fruits consumed as a snack by boys</td><td>NR</td><td>≠</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tanacetum vulgare</italic> L. (Asteraceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Fresh aerial parts consumed in salads as a depurative</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Thymus serpyllum</italic> L. (Lamiaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Infusion of the flowering tops as a digestive and anti-tussive</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tilia x europea</italic> L. (Malvaceae)</td><td>Flowers in diaphoretic decoctions; leaves as fodder</td><td>NR</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Trifolium</italic> spp. (Fabaceae)</td><td>Fodder</td><td>NR</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Tussilago farfara</italic> L. (Asteraceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Crashed fresh leaves, externally applied, as a suppurative</td><td>≠</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Urtica dioica</italic> L. (Urticaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Young aerial parts consumed in soups as a depurative; dried roots and leaves, decocted, for treating alopecia; dried leaves used as fodder for hens for increasing the egg production</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Verbascum phlomoides</italic> L. (Scrophulariaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Decoction of the flowers for treating catarrhs</td><td>=</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Verbena officinalis</italic> L. (Verbenaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Fresh aerial parts, crashed and mixed with pork fat, externally applied for treating cuts</td><td>≠</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Veronica prostrata</italic> L. (Plantaginaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Infusion for treating catarrhs and inflammations</td><td>≈</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viola biflora</italic> L. (Violaceae)</td><td>NR</td><td>Infusion of the dried flowers for treating coughs and as an intestinal anti-inflammatory; mixed with milk and bread, externally applied, as a suppurative</td><td>NR</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viola calcarata</italic> L. (Violaceae)</td><td>Leaves consumed in soups</td><td>Infusion of the dried flowers for treating coughs and as an intestinal anti-inflammatory; mixed with milk and bread, externally applied, as a suppurative</td><td>= (as in 1984)</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td><italic>Viola tricolor</italic> L. (Violaceae)</td><td>Not specified, the resulting preparation (decoction of the aerial parts?) considered good for those women, who had given a baby</td><td>Infusion of the dried flowers for treating coughs and as an intestinal anti-inflammatory; mixed with milk and bread, externally applied, as a suppurative</td><td>≠</td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><p>*We considered folk uses referred only to those plant taxa, for which local names were reported.</p><p>(?): hypothesized plant use details.</p><p>NR: not recorded; = same use; ≈ similar use; ≠ different uses.</p></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></p><p>Although few plants were reported in the ethnobotanical study published in 1900 [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR29">29</xref>] and few taxa were reported with their local names in the survey published in 1984 [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR30">30</xref>] (thus suggesting maybe a sampling based mainly on trained herbalists), more than half of these species recorded in these two studies are used in the same of similar ways today.</p><p>However, possible different research methods used in the current and past field studies make a detailed comparison very problematic, as in both of the past considered surveys, which were conducted by botanists, an exact description of the utilized sampling and ethnographic methods and, paradoxically, even an indication of collected plant vouchers are completely missing.</p><p>The comparative analysis shows in any case a remarkable degree of resilience of traditional plant uses in the study area, despite the tremendous socio-economic changes that occurred during the last 120 years; other diachronic analyses recently conducted in the Balkans have also confirmed the survival of 19<sup>th</sup> Century folk plant uses to today [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR43">43</xref>].</p></sec></sec><sec id="Sec12" sec-type="conclusion"><title>Conclusions</title><p>Local plants have played, and still partially play, an important role in the context of food security and emic, domestic pathways of the management of human and animal health in the Western Alps.</p><p>A marked persistence of local knowledge regarding these plants among Waldensians confirms the importance of studying enclaves as well as cultural and linguistic “isles” in ethnobotany, which may represent both crucial reservoirs of folk knowledge and <italic>bio-cultural refugia</italic> [<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="CR44">44</xref>].</p><p>On the other hand, the findings of this study indicate that a proper conservation of the bio-cultural heritage, such as the ethnobotanical one, requires strategies, which carefully consider natural landscapes and resources as well as cultural and religious customs, since plant folk knowledge systems are the result of a continuous interplay between these two domains over centuries.</p><p>Finally, these neglected local plant resources may represent a key issue for fostering a sustainable development in an area of the Alps, which has been largely untouched by mass tourism and is looking with particular interest at eco-touristic trajectories.</p></sec></body><back><fn-group><fn><p><bold>Competing interests</bold></p><p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p></fn><fn><p><bold>Authors’ contributions</bold></p><p>AP conceived the study; GB gathered the data in the field in the Germanasca and Chisone valleys, while AP gathered the data in the Pellice and Angrogna valleys; AP and GB analysed the collected data; AP drafted the manuscript. 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