Return of naturally sourced Pb to Atlantic surface waters
Identifieur interne : 000078 ( Pmc/Curation ); précédent : 000077; suivant : 000079Return of naturally sourced Pb to Atlantic surface waters
Auteurs : Luke Bridgestock [Royaume-Uni] ; Tina Van De Flierdt [Royaume-Uni] ; Mark Rehk Mper [Royaume-Uni] ; Maxence Paul [Royaume-Uni] ; Rob Middag [Nouvelle-Zélande, États-Unis] ; Angela Milne [Royaume-Uni] ; Maeve C. Lohan [Royaume-Uni] ; Alex R. Baker [Royaume-Uni] ; Rosie Chance [Royaume-Uni] ; Roulin Khondoker [Royaume-Uni] ; Stanislav Strekopytov [Royaume-Uni] ; Emma Humphreys-Williams [Royaume-Uni] ; Eric P. Achterberg [Allemagne] ; Micha J. A. Rijkenberg [Pays-Bas] ; Loes J. A. Gerringa [Pays-Bas] ; Hein J. W. De Baar [Pays-Bas]Source :
- Nature Communications [ 2041-1723 ] ; 2016.
Abstract
Anthropogenic emissions completely overwhelmed natural marine lead (Pb) sources during the past century, predominantly due to leaded petrol usage. Here, based on Pb isotope measurements, we reassess the importance of natural and anthropogenic Pb sources to the tropical North Atlantic following the nearly complete global cessation of leaded petrol use. Significant proportions of up to 30–50% of natural Pb, derived from mineral dust, are observed in Atlantic surface waters, reflecting the success of the global effort to reduce anthropogenic Pb emissions. The observation of mineral dust derived Pb in surface waters is governed by the elevated atmospheric mineral dust concentration of the North African dust plume and the dominance of dry deposition for the atmospheric aerosol flux to surface waters. Given these specific regional conditions, emissions from anthropogenic activities will remain the dominant global marine Pb source, even in the absence of leaded petrol combustion.
Url:
DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12921
PubMed: 27678297
PubMed Central: 5052796
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Achterberg</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="a8"><institution>Geomar-Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research</institution>, Kiel 24148,<country>Germany</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Allemagne</country><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff country strict</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Rijkenberg, Micha J A" sort="Rijkenberg, Micha J A" uniqKey="Rijkenberg M" first="Micha J. A." last="Rijkenberg">Micha J. A. Rijkenberg</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="a9"><institution>Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, and Utrecht University</institution>, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, Texel,<country>The Netherlands</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff country strict</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Gerringa, Loes J A" sort="Gerringa, Loes J A" uniqKey="Gerringa L" first="Loes J. A." last="Gerringa">Loes J. A. Gerringa</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="a9"><institution>Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, and Utrecht University</institution>, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, Texel,<country>The Netherlands</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff country strict</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="De Baar, Hein J W" sort="De Baar, Hein J W" uniqKey="De Baar H" first="Hein J. W." last="De Baar">Hein J. W. De Baar</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:aff id="a9"><institution>Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, and Utrecht University</institution>, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, Texel,<country>The Netherlands</country></nlm:aff><country xml:lang="fr">Pays-Bas</country><wicri:regionArea># see nlm:aff country strict</wicri:regionArea></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">Nature Communications</title><idno type="eISSN">2041-1723</idno><imprint><date when="2016">2016</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en"><p>Anthropogenic emissions completely overwhelmed natural marine lead (Pb) sources during the past century, predominantly due to leaded petrol usage. Here, based on Pb isotope measurements, we reassess the importance of natural and anthropogenic Pb sources to the tropical North Atlantic following the nearly complete global cessation of leaded petrol use. Significant proportions of up to 30–50% of natural Pb, derived from mineral dust, are observed in Atlantic surface waters, reflecting the success of the global effort to reduce anthropogenic Pb emissions. The observation of mineral dust derived Pb in surface waters is governed by the elevated atmospheric mineral dust concentration of the North African dust plume and the dominance of dry deposition for the atmospheric aerosol flux to surface waters. Given these specific regional conditions, emissions from anthropogenic activities will remain the dominant global marine Pb source, even in the absence of leaded petrol combustion.</p></div></front><back><div1 type="bibliography"><listBibl><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Nriagu, J O" uniqKey="Nriagu J">J. O. Nriagu</name></author><author><name sortKey="Pacyna, J M" uniqKey="Pacyna J">J. M. Pacyna</name></author></analytic></biblStruct><biblStruct><analytic><author><name sortKey="Boyle, E A" uniqKey="Boyle E">E. A. 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<front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Nat Commun</journal-id><journal-id journal-id-type="iso-abbrev">Nat Commun</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title>Nature Communications</journal-title></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">2041-1723</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Nature Publishing Group</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="pmid">27678297</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pmc">5052796</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="pii">ncomms12921</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/ncomms12921</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Return of naturally sourced Pb to Atlantic surface waters</article-title></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Bridgestock</surname><given-names>Luke</given-names></name><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1">a</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a1">1</xref><xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="n1">*</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>van de Flierdt</surname><given-names>Tina</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Rehkämper</surname><given-names>Mark</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Paul</surname><given-names>Maxence</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Middag</surname><given-names>Rob</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a2">2</xref><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a3">3</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Milne</surname><given-names>Angela</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a4">4</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Lohan</surname><given-names>Maeve C.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a5">5</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Baker</surname><given-names>Alex R.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a6">6</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Chance</surname><given-names>Rosie</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a6">6</xref><xref ref-type="author-notes" rid="n2">†</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Khondoker</surname><given-names>Roulin</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a1">1</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Strekopytov</surname><given-names>Stanislav</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a7">7</xref><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5129-9880</contrib-id></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Humphreys-Williams</surname><given-names>Emma</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a7">7</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Achterberg</surname><given-names>Eric P.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a8">8</xref><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3061-2767</contrib-id></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Rijkenberg</surname><given-names>Micha J. A.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a9">9</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>Gerringa</surname><given-names>Loes J. A.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a9">9</xref></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name><surname>de Baar</surname><given-names>Hein J. W.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="a9">9</xref></contrib><aff id="a1"><label>1</label><institution>Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London</institution>, London SW7 2AZ,<country>UK</country></aff><aff id="a2"><label>2</label><institution>Department of Chemistry, NIWA/University of Otago Research Centre for Oceanography</institution>, Dunedin 9054,<country>New Zealand</country></aff><aff id="a3"><label>3</label><institution>Department of Ocean Sciences & Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz</institution>, CA 95064,<country>USA</country></aff><aff id="a4"><label>4</label><institution>School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth</institution>, Plymouth PL4 8AA,<country>UK</country></aff><aff id="a5"><label>5</label><institution>Ocean and Earth Sciences, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, University of Southampton</institution>, Southampton SO14 3ZH,<country>UK</country></aff><aff id="a6"><label>6</label><institution>School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia</institution>, Norwich NR4 7TJ,<country>UK</country></aff><aff id="a7"><label>7</label><institution>Image and Analysis Centre, Natural History Museum</institution>, London SW7 5BD,<country>UK</country></aff><aff id="a8"><label>8</label><institution>Geomar-Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research</institution>, Kiel 24148,<country>Germany</country></aff><aff id="a9"><label>9</label><institution>Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, and Utrecht University</institution>, P.O. Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, Texel,<country>The Netherlands</country></aff></contrib-group><author-notes><corresp id="c1"><label>a</label><email>luke.bridgestock@earth.ox.ac.uk</email></corresp><fn id="n1"><label>*</label><p>Present address: Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3AN, UK</p></fn><fn id="n2"><label>†</label><p>Present address: Wolfson Atmospheric Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK</p></fn></author-notes><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>28</day><month>09</month><year>2016</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2016</year></pub-date><volume>7</volume><elocation-id>12921</elocation-id><history><date date-type="received"><day>14</day><month>04</month><year>2016</year></date><date date-type="accepted"><day>16</day><month>08</month><year>2016</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright © 2016, The Author(s)</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2016</copyright-year><copyright-holder>The Author(s)</copyright-holder><license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><pmc-comment>author-paid</pmc-comment>
<license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p></license></permissions><abstract><p>Anthropogenic emissions completely overwhelmed natural marine lead (Pb) sources during the past century, predominantly due to leaded petrol usage. Here, based on Pb isotope measurements, we reassess the importance of natural and anthropogenic Pb sources to the tropical North Atlantic following the nearly complete global cessation of leaded petrol use. Significant proportions of up to 30–50% of natural Pb, derived from mineral dust, are observed in Atlantic surface waters, reflecting the success of the global effort to reduce anthropogenic Pb emissions. The observation of mineral dust derived Pb in surface waters is governed by the elevated atmospheric mineral dust concentration of the North African dust plume and the dominance of dry deposition for the atmospheric aerosol flux to surface waters. Given these specific regional conditions, emissions from anthropogenic activities will remain the dominant global marine Pb source, even in the absence of leaded petrol combustion.</p></abstract><abstract abstract-type="web-summary"><p><inline-graphic id="i1" xlink:href="ncomms12921-i1.jpg"></inline-graphic>Anthropogenic lead (Pb) has overwhelmed natural Pb sources for over a century, yet the phasing out of leaded petrol in the early 2000s has renewed hope. Here, Bridgestock <italic>et al</italic>. use Pd isotopes to reassess the origins of Pd deposited in the tropical North Atlantic and reveal a significant natural source.</p></abstract></article-meta></front><floats-group><fig id="f1"><label>Figure 1</label><caption><title>Collection locations of samples used in this study.</title><p>Panel (<bold>a</bold>), sampling locations for unfiltered surface seawater (circles) and aerosols (brown lines) along the middle part of the GEOTRACES section GA02 (2nd leg; cruise PE321) and along the GEOTRACES section GA06 (cruise D361). Brown circles indicate surface seawaters affected by mixing with Amazon River outflow in the western tropical Atlantic (WTA). Green arrows show the main meteorological regimes, while black lines denote the position of the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) during each cruise. The map was produced using Ocean Data View<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b69">69</xref>. Panels (<bold>b</bold>) and (<bold>c</bold>) show aerosol optical depth (550 nm) averaged over the duration of the cruises PE321 (section GA02, 2nd leg) and cruise D361 (section GA06) respectively. The position of the North African mineral dust plume over the Atlantic Ocean can be clearly identified by higher values (darker colours). Visualizations were produced using the Giovanni online data system, NASA GES DISC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b70">70</xref> with data from the MODIS instrument on board the Terra satellite.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-f1"></graphic></fig><fig id="f2"><label>Figure 2</label><caption><title>Lead concentrations and isotopic compositions results for surface seawater samples.</title><p>Panel (<bold>a</bold>) displays Pb concentration results, while panels (<bold>b</bold>) and (<bold>c</bold>) display <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb and <sup>208</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb ratios respectively, as a function of latitude. Circles denote the results for unfiltered seawater samples, and squares are results for filtered seawater (western Tropical Atlantic only). Green and purple shaded fields denote the position of the North African dust plume during the 64PE321 and D361 cruise, in the western and eastern Tropical Atlantic (WTA and ETA) respectively. Uncertainty assessed through replicate analyses of in-house seawater standards quoted at 1 s.d. for Pb concentrations and 2 s.d. for Pb isotope ratios<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66">66</xref>.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-f2"></graphic></fig><fig id="f3"><label>Figure 3</label><caption><title>A plot of <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb versus <sup>208</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb for surface water and aerosol samples for source assessment.</title><p>Panel (<bold>a</bold>) <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb versus <sup>208</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb for unfiltered surface seawater from GEOTRACES sections GA02 (2nd leg) and GA06 and aerosols (total digests and leachates; GA06). Shown for comparison are the Pb isotope compositions of (1) the major potential Pb sources to the tropical Atlantic (coloured fields<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b23">23</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b24">24</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b25">25</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b26">26</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b27">27</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b28">28</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b29">29</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b30">30</xref>) with recent North American aerosols denoted by light blue diamonds<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b11">11</xref>, (2) surface seawaters collected in the region during the 1980s and 1990s (grey squares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b8">8</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b9">9</xref>), as well as (3) a mixing line between anthropogenic Pb (Pb<sub>anth</sub>) transported by easterly winds and mineral dust derived Pb (Pb<sub>min</sub>). Inset panel (<bold>b</bold>), displays an enlargement of <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb versus <sup>208</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb ratios for unfiltered surface seawater only. Quoted uncertainties (2 s.d.) for the seawater and aerosol data are assessed as through replicate analyses of in-house seawater standards<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66">66</xref> (seawater) or by propagation of uncertainty associated with blank corrections and measurement protocols (aerosols).</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-f3"></graphic></fig><fig id="f4"><label>Figure 4</label><caption><title>Comparison of the Pb contents and isotope composition of Amazon influenced to the remainder of WTA surface waters.</title><p>Salinity versus <sup>208</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb ratios (panel <bold>a</bold>), and Pb concentrations (panel <bold>b</bold>) for unfiltered surface seawater samples collected in the western tropical Atlantic (GEOTRACES section GA02, 2nd leg). The samples affected by mixing with Amazon River water are distinguished as brown circles, while other samples are marked in green. Quoted uncertainties in <sup>208</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb ratios (2 s.d.) and Pb concentrations (1 s.d.) are assessed through replicate analyses of in-house seawater standards<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66">66</xref>.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-f4"></graphic></fig><fig id="f5"><label>Figure 5</label><caption><title>Results of mineral dust derived Pb proportion estimates for the aerosol total digests.</title><p>(<bold>a</bold>) comparison between the proportions of mineral dust derived Pb (Pb<sub>min</sub>) in the total digests of aerosol samples, as estimated using the isotope mass balance versus the enrichment factor (EF) based approaches. The grey line denotes a 1:1 relationship. Panel (<bold>b</bold>) the proportion of Pb<sub>min</sub> in the total aerosol digests estimated using the isotope mass balance approach plotted versus atmospheric Al concentrations, as a proxy for atmospheric mineral dust abundance. The black contours denote constant anthropogenic Pb (Pb<sub>anth</sub>) concentrations for the atmosphere (in ng m<sup>−3</sup>), calculated for mineral dust with Pb/Al ratio of 2.09 × 10<sup>−4</sup> (ref. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b44">44</xref>). Uncertainty in the Pb<sub>min</sub> proportion estimates by the isotope mass balance based approach is assessed by propagation of the full range of <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb ratios compiled for North African mineral dust through the calculations.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-f5"></graphic></fig><fig id="f6"><label>Figure 6</label><caption><title>The relationship between solubility and proportion of mineral dust derived Pb.</title><p>Results of the fractional solubility of Pb in the leaching procedure relative to the total digests as a function of estimated proportion of mineral dust derived Pb in each aerosol sample. Displayed Pb<sub>min</sub> proportion estimates are derived using the isotope mass balance approach, with uncertainty assessed by propagation of the full range of <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb ratios compiled for North African mineral dust through the calculations. Uncertainty of the fractional solubility estimates (1 s.d.) is assessed by propagation of the variability of the sampling blank through the calculation.</p></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-f6"></graphic></fig><table-wrap position="float" id="t1"><label>Table 1</label><caption><title>Lead concentration and isotope data for unfiltered surface seawater samples collected during along the GEOTRACES sections GA02 (2nd leg) and GA06.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-t1"></graphic><table-wrap-foot><fn id="t1-fn1"><p><sup>C</sup>Sample collected off the coast of east Africa.</p></fn><fn id="t1-fn2"><p><sup>*</sup>number of Pb concentration analyses conducted; quoted Pb concentrations are the mean of all analyses, and are corrected for an average blank of 11.7±4.3 pg (1 s.d., <italic>n</italic>=36)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66">66</xref>.</p></fn><fn id="t1-fn3"><p><sup>†</sup>relative within-run precision (2 s.e.) of isotopic data in parts per million (ppm).</p></fn><fn id="t1-fn4"><p><sup>‡</sup>Quantity of Pb utilized for the isotopic analysis.</p></fn><fn id="t1-fn5"><p><sup>§</sup>Pb isotope ratios are assigned a larger level of uncertainty due to either the small quantity of Pb available for analysis (≤2 ng) and/or poor within-run precision. For these samples, <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>204</sup>Pb, <sup>206</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb and <sup>208</sup>Pb/<sup>207</sup>Pb are assigned relative uncertainties of 2.6‰, 1.7‰ and 0.8‰ respectively; for all other samples, these isotope ratios are assigned uncertainties of 1‰, 1‰ and 0.25‰ respectively. The quoted uncertainties are based on replicate analyses (2 s.d.) of in-house seawater reference materials<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66">66</xref>. Similarly, the Pb concentrations are assigned an uncertainty of±1 pmol kg<sup>−1</sup> based on replicate analyses (1 s.d.) of in-house seawater reference materials<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="b66">66</xref>.</p></fn><fn id="t1-fn6"><p><sup>||</sup>Samples affected by mixing with Amazon River outflow water.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap position="float" id="t2"><label>Table 2</label><caption><title>Elemental concentrations and Pb isotope compositions for aerosols collected in the eastern tropical Atlantic along GEOTRACES section GA06.</title></caption><graphic xlink:href="ncomms12921-t2"></graphic><table-wrap-foot><fn id="t2-fn1"><p><sup>*</sup>Latitudes/longitudes between which samples were collected.</p></fn><fn id="t2-fn2"><p><sup>†</sup>AMBT=air mass back trajectory group, NA=North African, Al=Algerian, Oc=oceanic (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="S1">Supplementary Figs 1–3</xref>).</p></fn><fn id="t2-fn3"><p><sup>‡</sup>Atmospheric Pb concentration, uncertainty estimated by propagation of the sampling blank uncertainty (1 s.d., see Methods).</p></fn><fn id="t2-fn4"><p><sup>§</sup>Fractional solubility of Pb in leaching procedure (<xref ref-type="disp-formula" rid="eq4">equation (4)</xref>); uncertainty estimated by propagating the uncertainties (1 s.d.) of the atmospheric Pb concentrations from analyses of the leachates and total aerosol digests (see Methods).</p></fn><fn id="t2-fn5"><p><sup>||</sup>Crustal enrichment factors (<xref ref-type="disp-formula" rid="eq1">equation (1)</xref>); uncertainty based on the uncertainty (1 s.d.) of atmospheric concentrations (see text).</p></fn><fn id="t2-fn6"><p><sup>¶</sup>Pb isotope ratios are corrected for the Pb content and isotope composition of the sampling blank, with uncertainties (2 s.d.) assessed as described in the Methods section.</p></fn><fn id="t2-fn7"><p><sup>#</sup>Estimated proportions of Pb<sub>min</sub> in the total digests calculated using the isotope mass balance/EF approaches.</p></fn><fn id="t2-fn8"><p><sup>**</sup>Atmospheric concentrations of Pb<sub>anth</sub> estimated based on Pb<sub>min</sub> proportions calculated using the isotope mass balance/EF approaches (<xref ref-type="disp-formula" rid="eq3">equation (3)</xref>).</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap><table-wrap position="float" id="t3"><label>Table 3</label><caption><title>Results of sensitivity test on (Pb<sub>min</sub>/Pb<sub>anth</sub>)<sub>dp</sub> using constraints for (Pb<sub>min</sub>/Pb<sub>anth</sub>)<sub>at</sub> and (Pb<sub>min</sub>/Pb<sub>anth</sub>)<sub>sol</sub> outlined in the main text.</title></caption><table frame="hsides" rules="groups" border="1"><colgroup><col align="left"></col><col align="center"></col><col align="center"></col><col align="center"></col></colgroup><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>(Pb</bold><sub><bold>min</bold></sub><bold>/Pb</bold><sub><bold>anth</bold></sub><bold>)</bold><sub><bold>sol</bold></sub></th><th colspan="3" align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>(Pb</bold><sub><bold>min</bold></sub><bold>/Pb</bold><sub><bold>anth</bold></sub><bold>)</bold><sub><bold>at</bold></sub><hr></hr></th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="top" charoff="50"> </th><th colspan="2" align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><italic><bold>Representative</bold></italic><hr></hr></th><th align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><italic><bold>Maximum</bold></italic></th></tr><tr><th align="left" valign="top" charoff="50"> </th><th align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>1</bold></th><th align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>2</bold></th><th align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>8</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.01</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">30.0–50.0</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">15.0–25.0</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">3.8–6.3</td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.02</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">15.0–25.0</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">7.5–12.5</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>1.9–3.1</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.03</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">10.0–16.7</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">5.0–8.3</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>1.3–2.1</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.04</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">7.5–12.5</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">3.8–6.3</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>0.9–1.6</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.05</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">6.0–10.0</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">3.0–5.0</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>0.8–1.3</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.06</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">5.0–8.3</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">2.5–4.2</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>0.6–1.0</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.07</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">4.3–7.1</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">2.1–3.6</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>0.5–0.9</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.08</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">3.8–6.3</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>1.9–3.1</bold></td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>0.5–0.8</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.09</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">3.3–5.6</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>1.7–2.8</bold></td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>0.4–0.7</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" valign="top" charoff="50">0.10</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50">3.0–5.0</td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>1.5–2.5</bold></td><td align="center" valign="top" charoff="50"><bold>0.4–0.6</bold></td></tr></tbody></table><table-wrap-foot><fn id="t3-fn1"><p>The values in each cell corresponds to the required (Pb<sub>min</sub>/Pb<sub>anth</sub>)<sub>dp</sub> ratios required to produce (Pb<sub>min</sub>/Pb<sub>anth</sub>)<sub>os</sub>=0.3–0.5. The part of the domain which does not require preferential deposition of Pb<sub>min</sub> over Pb<sub>anth</sub> because the calculations yield (Pb<sub>min</sub>/Pb<sub>anth</sub>)<sub>dp</sub><2, is highlighted in bold. We argue that (Pb<sub>min</sub>/Pb<sub>anth</sub>)<sub>at</sub> ratios of 1 to 2 are likely for the tropical North Atlantic during the dustiest periods of the year, while a ratio of 8 represents an absolute maximum.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap></floats-group></pmc></record>Pour manipuler ce document sous Unix (Dilib)
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